Abstract
This article attempts to describe the ideology, politics, and implementation of China’s traditional tributary system to better understand its suzerainty over states, specifically in foreign relations. Through this system, China, which is considered to be the superior state (shangguo), will protect the sovereign states in its orbit. In return, the sovereign states have to present tributes to the Emperor of China, who is regarded as the Son of Heaven (tianzi), as well as recognised China’s greatness and power. This study involves a qualitative analysis based on official Chinese historical records as well as scholarly studies on the effectiveness and limitations of the system. This article also covers countries in Southeast Asia that adopted tributary systems. This region is still poorly defined, and the limited number of studies, especially regarding its history and intra-regional development prior to Western powers' arrival. The research findings proved that China’s tributary system in the Southeast Asian region is dynamic relationships. Hence, it is suggested that researchers should look at the system within a broader framework to understand its implementation. Although the practice of the tributary system is Sinocentric, it is neither static nor monolithic. Conversely, the tributary system has a well-organised, neat and well-established mechanism that results from mutual understanding between China and its protectorates. Keywords: tributary system, China foreign relations, Son of Heaven, Mandate of Heaven, China-Southeast Asia tributary relations
Highlights
When describing China’s foreign relations, it is important to understand its tributary system's general concept and development, which formed the basis of its relationship with other countries. Hamashita (1988, 2008) insists that it is necessary to understand how every region and country in Asia tried to adapt to China’s tributary system, which Hamashita was regarded it as very influential and intertwined with China’s interactions with the foreign world
Zhang (2001) and Zhang and Chang (2018) have suggested that the implementation of the tributary system needs to be studied more comprehensively. They have argued that the tributary system should no longer be viewed from the perspectives of scholars such as Fairbank (1942, 1968), Fletcher (1968), Lien (1968), Mancall (1968, 1984), Rossabi (1983) and Wang (1965a, 1965b, 1968, 1995, 2005a, 2005b), who focused on the importance of the tribute system as the traditional Chinese system for managing foreign relations
The tributary system had been practised by China many years before the Ming Dynasty institutionalised it, creating rules and a defined system for foreign relations
Summary
When describing China’s foreign relations, it is important to understand its tributary system's general concept and development, which formed the basis of its relationship with other countries. Hamashita (1988, 2008) insists that it is necessary to understand how every region and country in Asia tried to adapt to China’s tributary system, which Hamashita was regarded it as very influential and intertwined with China’s interactions with the foreign world. Zhang (2001) and Zhang and Chang (2018) have suggested that the implementation of the tributary system needs to be studied more comprehensively They have argued that the tributary system should no longer be viewed from the perspectives of scholars such as Fairbank (1942, 1968), Fletcher (1968), Lien (1968), Mancall (1968, 1984), Rossabi (1983) and Wang (1965a, 1965b, 1968, 1995, 2005a, 2005b), who focused on the importance of the tribute system as the traditional Chinese system for managing foreign relations. Unlike the Westphalian system, which is characterised by equality between states, the Chinese world order [tributary system] is a hierarchical system in which China is the suzerain, the world centre, and the superior state, while other states are its vassals, tributaries and subordinates
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