Abstract
BackgroundResearch shows that children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder are at elevated risk of criminality. However, several issues still need to be addressed in order to verify whether hyperactivity in itself plays a role in the prediction of criminality. In particular, co-occurrence with other behaviors as well as the internal heterogeneity in ADHD symptoms (hyperactivity and inattention) should be taken into account. The aim of this study was to assess the unique and interactive contributions of hyperactivity to the development of criminality, whilst considering inattention, physical aggression and family adversity.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe monitored the development of a population-based sample of kindergarten children (N = 2,741). Hyperactivity, inattention, and physical aggression were assessed annually between the ages of 6 and 12 years by mothers and teachers. Information on the presence, the age at first charge and the type of criminal charge was obtained from official records when the participants were aged 25 years. We used survival analysis models to predict the development of criminality in adolescence and adulthood: high childhood hyperactivity was highly predictive when bivariate analyses were used; however, with multivariate analyses, high hyperactivity was only marginally significant (Hazard Ratio: 1.38; 95% CI: 0.94–2.02). Sensitivity analyses revealed that hyperactivity was not a consistent predictor. High physical aggression was strongly predictive (Hazard Ratio: 3.44; 95% CI: 2.43–4.87) and its role was consistent in sensitivity analyses and for different types of crime. Inattention was not predictive of later criminality.Conclusions/SignificanceAlthough the contribution of childhood hyperactivity to criminality may be detected in large samples using multi-informant longitudinal designs, our results show that it is not a strong predictor of later criminality. Crime prevention should instead target children with the highest levels of childhood physical aggression and family adversity.
Highlights
Abundant evidence demonstrates that children diagnosed with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are at high risk of many long-term adverse outcomes, including criminality [1,2,3,4,5]
The four trajectories of hyperactivity and physical aggression followed a similar pattern: a ‘‘Low’’ trajectory; a ‘‘High mother only’’ trajectory with participants whose score was consistently among the sample highest scores according to their mother but amongst the lowest according to their teachers; a ‘‘Declining trajectory’’ with participants starting high and declining during elementary school; a ‘‘High mother/teacher’’ trajectory for a minority of participants who were rated constantly high by their mothers and their teachers
The process that led to the selection of a two trajectory model for inattention and a four trajectory model for hyperactivity and physical aggression is detailed in the Supporting Information
Summary
Abundant evidence demonstrates that children diagnosed with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are at high risk of many long-term adverse outcomes, including criminality [1,2,3,4,5]. Whether hyperactivity in itself plays a role in the prediction of criminality remains unclear, with mixed findings in clinical as well as population-based studies [1,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12]. Resolving this issue is important in order to: 1) clarify the role of hyperactivity in the developmental pathways leading to criminality; and 2) assess whether early symptoms of hyperactivity may be good targets for interventions aiming to prevent criminal behavior during adolescence and early adulthood. The aim of this study was to assess the unique and interactive contributions of hyperactivity to the development of criminality, whilst considering inattention, physical aggression and family adversity
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