Abstract
Background.Child exposure to lead from informal used lead-acid battery (ULAB) recycling operations is a serious environmental health problem, particularly in developing countries.Objectives.We investigated child exposure to lead in the vicinities of ULAB recycling operations in the Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru slums in Nairobi between January and August 2015.Methods.Top soil (n = 232) and floor dust (n = 322) samples were collected from dwelling units (n = 120) and preparatory schools (n = 44) and analyzed using an inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer at the Mines and Geological Department Laboratory in the Ministry of Mining, Nairobi. From the obtained lead levels in soil and house dust, child blood lead levels were subsequently predicted using the Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic Model for Lead in Children (IEUBK), Windows version.Results.Lead loadings in all the floor dust samples from the Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru slums exceeded the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) guidance value for lead on floors with a range of 65.2 – 58,194 μg/ft2. Control floor dust samples recorded lower lead loadings compared to the Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru slums. Lead concentration in 70.7% of the soil samples collected from waste dumps, industrial sites, residential areas, playgrounds and preparatory schools in Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru exceeded the respective USEPA guidance values for lead in soils. Lead concentration in 100% of control soil samples were below the respective USEPA limits. The IEUBK model predicted that nearly 99.9% of children ≤ 7 years old living near informal ULAB recycling operations in Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru were at risk of being lead poisoned, with predicted blood lead levels (BLL) above the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reference value for blood lead. A total of 99.9% of exposed children living in the Mukuru slums are likely to have BLL above 34 μg/dL.Conclusions.There is a need for coordinated efforts to decrease lead emissions from informal battery recycling in Nairobi slums and to remediate existing soils, particularly around battery workplaces and dumpsites. The BLL of local children should be clinically tested and appropriate intervention measures taken.
Highlights
IntroductionLead exposure from informal used lead-acid battery (ULAB) recycling operations is a serious environmental health problem, especially in developing countries.[1,2,3] Research shows that young children living near informal ULAB recycling operations have elevated blood lead levels (BLL) and fatalities have been reported.[4,5,6,7] The operations release large amounts of lead dust and wastes containing lead into surrounding soils, air, buildings and waterways.[1,4,6,8] The released lead finds its way into human bodies through various pathways.[2,5,6] In young children, ingestion of lead-contaminated soil and dust is the major pathway of exposure
The IEUBK model predicted that nearly 99.9% of children ≤ 7 years old living near informal used lead-acid battery (ULAB) recycling operations in Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru were at risk of being lead poisoned, with predicted blood lead levels (BLL) above the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reference value for blood lead
Using the IEUBK model, we estimated that 99.9% of children ≤ 7 years old living near informal ULAB recycling operations in Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru were likely to have lead poisoning, with predicted BLLs exceeding the US CDC 5 μg/dL reference value
Summary
Lead exposure from informal used lead-acid battery (ULAB) recycling operations is a serious environmental health problem, especially in developing countries.[1,2,3] Research shows that young children living near informal ULAB recycling operations have elevated blood lead levels (BLL) and fatalities have been reported.[4,5,6,7] The operations release large amounts of lead dust and wastes containing lead into surrounding soils, air, buildings and waterways.[1,4,6,8] The released lead finds its way into human bodies through various pathways.[2,5,6] In young children, ingestion of lead-contaminated soil and dust is the major pathway of exposure. We investigated child exposure to lead in the vicinities of ULAB recycling operations in the Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru slums in Nairobi between January and August 2015. Lead loadings in all the floor dust samples from the Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru slums exceeded the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) guidance value for lead on floors with a range of 65.2 – 58,194 μg/ft[2]. The IEUBK model predicted that nearly 99.9% of children ≤ 7 years old living near informal ULAB recycling operations in Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru were at risk of being lead poisoned, with predicted blood lead levels (BLL) above the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reference value for blood lead. Soil, house dust, predicted child blood lead, used lead-acid battery recycling, Nairobi slums, IEUBK J Health Pollution 12: 15-25 (2016) Keywords. soil, house dust, predicted child blood lead, used lead-acid battery recycling, Nairobi slums, IEUBK J Health Pollution 12: 15-25 (2016)
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