Abstract
Urban rainwater samples, collected in various districts of Kraków during the period from the spring of 2019 to the winter of 2020, were investigated, and relevant risk implications were assessed. The contents of 31 components were determined, including: bacteria, fungi, pH, EC, Cl-, N-NO3, P-PO4, SO42-, SiO2, K, Mg, Ag, Al, Ba, Ca, Cu, K, Mg, Mo, Na, Pb, Sb, and Zn. The highest contents of the investigated elements were determined in the industrial (eastern) part of Kraków. The values of toxicity potential were <1, indicating a lack of ecological risk. The value of contamination degree indicated moderate rainwater contamination in all analyzed elements (Cdeg = 9.44). The total non-carcinogenic risk values, in both adults (hazard quotient (HQ) = 1.38) and children (HQ = 2.54), exceeded the acceptable level of one. Regarding individual elements in dermal contact, the acceptable level of 1 × 10−6 was exceeded in Pb (adults carcinogenic risk (CR) = 4.87 × 10−5, children CR = 2.23 × 10−5). The contents of the analyzed chemical compounds did not exceed the permissible levels adopted for drinking water; however, rainwater was significantly contaminated with respect to its microbiological parameters. Rainwater was suitable for non-potable use.
Highlights
Climate changes and drought periods mean that alternative sources of water supplies are required.Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is an old practice [1], commonly used in arid and semi-arid regions [2,3].In the countries that struggle with drought, rainwater is collected for potable purposes primarily.non-potable applications are practiced like washing, cleaning, toilet flushing, or plant watering [4,5]
Rainwater harvesting is still rarely practiced in urban regions of Poland [6], but as water resources in Poland are almost the lowest in Europe [7,8,9], RWH systems may become a necessity
The roof runoff samples were collected below vertical downpipes of roof gutters, since rainfall rainwater,is31usually parameters were in the period fromthe spring ofcondition
Summary
Climate changes and drought periods mean that alternative sources of water supplies are required.Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is an old practice [1], commonly used in arid and semi-arid regions [2,3].In the countries that struggle with drought, rainwater is collected for potable purposes primarily.non-potable applications are practiced like washing, cleaning, toilet flushing, or plant watering [4,5]. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is an old practice [1], commonly used in arid and semi-arid regions [2,3]. Rainwater harvesting is still rarely practiced in urban regions of Poland [6], but as water resources in Poland are almost the lowest in Europe [7,8,9], RWH systems may become a necessity. According to Jedrzejczak [17], the urban runoff and the combined sewage overflows events occurring during wet weather are the major sources of water pollution. The roof runoff may cause more than 80% of the load of heavy metals in the combined sewage system during wet weather [17]
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