Abstract
Chemically and thermally stable ceramics are required for many applications. Many characteristics (electrochemical stability, high thermomechanical properties, etc.) directly or indirectly imply the use of refractory materials. Many devices require the association of different materials with variable melting/decomposition temperatures, which requires their co-firing at a common temperature, far from being the most efficient for materials prepared by conventional routes (materials having the stability lowest temperature determines the maximal firing temperature). We review here the different strategies that can be implemented to lower the sintering temperature by means of chemical preparation routes of oxides, (oxy)carbides, and (oxy)nitrides: wet chemical and sol–gel process, metal-organic precursors, control of heterogeneity and composition, transient liquid phase at the grain boundaries, microwave sintering, etc. Examples are chosen from fibers and ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), (opto-)ferroelectric, electrolytes and electrode materials for energy storage and production devices (beta alumina, ferrites, zirconia, ceria, zirconates, phosphates, and Na superionic conductor (NASICON)) which have specific requirements due to multivalent composition and non-stoichiometry.
Highlights
Firing at high temperature increases the cost of production, but above all it limits the choice of materials that can be sintered together
The scope is too large to cover in detail and we will limit our objective to a rapid historical overview by privileging the initial publications where often many details are given, since the information is often lost in the most recent publications
The development of advanced ceramic technology really began after the World War II, first with the production of ‘high-temperature’ ceramics for nuclear energy and weapons [7,9,18], radar systems [7,19,20], aerospace and aeronautic engines [7,21,22,23], the production of refractory bricks for the steel and glass industry [24], spark plug insulators for automotive engines [7,25], and the materials for electronics [7,26,27,28]
Summary
Firing at high temperature increases the cost of production, but above all it limits the choice of materials that can be sintered together. Several strategies are implemented to be able to (co-)sinter and to control both the grain size and the porosity in devices associating several phases This is necessary for electrochemical devices associating electrodes, current collectors, and electrolyte necessary for the realization of sensors, batteries, fuel cells, electrolyzers, CO2 converters, etc., as well as the preparation of composites with special properties, mechanical or electrical. We will first address the chemical production of (ultra)fine powders, as well as the optimization of contact area between individual grains (i.e., compaction in the green state), control of reaction at the grain–grain contact (liquid sintering and gradient effects), control and optimization of the structure and properties, in particular for multicomponents and non-stoichiometric compounds as well as multiphase devices (composites, electrochemical systems, etc.). The scope is too large to cover in detail and we will limit our objective to a rapid historical overview by privileging the initial publications where often many details are given, since the information is often lost in the most recent publications
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