Abstract
Abstract Present knowledge on electronic stopping of protons in gases and solids is summarized with special emphasis on the question of how stopping is influenced when the target element changes its state of aggregation (physical state effect, PSE) or when it is incorporated into a compound (chemical state effect, CSE). Bragg's rule assumes that for a compound the stopping cross-section is simply the weighted sum of stopping cross-sections of its constituents (additivity rule). To overcome the oversimplification of Bragg's rule, a phenomenological description is presented on how the two state effects may cause deviations from Bragg's rule. Then theoretical and semi-empirical models are summarized that are able to describe PSE and CSE at high, intermediate and low velocities.
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