Abstract
Some basic requirements of bone tissue engineering include cells derived from bone tissues, three-dimensional (3D) scaffold materials, and osteogenic factors. In this framework, the critical architecture of the scaffolds plays a crucial role to support and assist the adhesion of the cells, and the subsequent tissue repairs. However, numerous traditional methods suffer from certain drawbacks, such as multi-step preparation, poor reproducibility, high complexity, difficulty in controlling the porous architectures, the shape of the scaffolds, and the existence of solvent residue, which limits their applicability. In this work, we fabricated innovative poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) porous scaffolds, using 3D-printing technology, to overcome the shortcomings of traditional approaches. In addition, the printing parameters were critically optimized for obtaining scaffolds with normal morphology, appropriate porous architectures, and sufficient mechanical properties, for the accommodation of the bone cells. Various evaluation studies, including the exploration of mechanical properties (compressive strength and yield stress) for different thicknesses, and change of structure (printing angle) and porosity, were performed. Particularly, the degradation rate of the 3D scaffolds, printed in the optimized conditions, in the presence of hydrolytic, as well as enzymatic conditions were investigated. Their assessments were evaluated using the thermal gravimetric analyzer (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). These porous scaffolds, with their biocompatibility, biodegradation ability, and mechanical properties, have enabled the embryonic osteoblast precursor cells (MC3T3-E1), to adhere and proliferate in the porous architectures, with increasing time. The generation of highly porous 3D scaffolds, based on 3D printing technology, and their critical evaluation, through various investigations, may undoubtedly provide a reference for further investigations and guide critical optimization of scaffold fabrication, for tissue regeneration.
Highlights
In recent times, tissue engineering (TE), one of the important concepts of the biomedical field, has garnered enormous attention due to the increase in the demand for organ-replacement treatment, and a shortage of donated organs [1–3]
We demonstrated the fabrication of porous scaffolds, using 3D-printing technology, for engineering bone tissues
In addition to the protein adsorption, we evaluated the secretion of cell proteins that are responsible for the generation of extracellular matrix (ECM), in the scaffolds
Summary
Tissue engineering (TE), one of the important concepts of the biomedical field, has garnered enormous attention due to the increase in the demand for organ-replacement treatment, and a shortage of donated organs [1–3]. Despite the significant advantages and success of the TE field, reconstruction of bone for treating bone defects, with the help of suitable scaffolds that mimic the native bone tissues, has remained a major concern. This is because of the poor biodegradability, inadequate autogenous bone, and presence of immune rejection, in most instances [7–10]. The generation of suitable engineered three-dimensional (3D) porous scaffolds, with specific porous architectures that meet the needs of patients with different bone defects, is highly challenging [6,11–13]
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