Abstract
Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a widespread and persistent challenge to conservation. However, relatively few studies have thus far examined long-term monitoring data to quantify how the type, and severity of HWC varies across species, seasons, years and ecosystems. Here, we examine human-wildlife conflicts in Tsavo and Maasai Mara, two premier wildlife conservation areas in Kenya. Using Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) data (2001-2016), we show that both the type and severity of conflicts vary among species such that the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), is the leading conflict species in both the Tsavo (64.3%, n= 30664) and Mara (47.0%, n=12487) ecosystems. The next four most notorious conflict animals, in decreasing order, are nonhuman primates (Tsavo 11.4%, n=3502; Mara 11.8%, n=1473), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer, Tsavo 5.5%, n=1676; Mara 11.3%, n=1410), lion (Panthera leo,Tsavo 3.6%, n=1107; Mara 3.3%, n=416) and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta, Tsavo 2.4%, n=744; Mara 5.8%, n=729). We group the observed conflict incidences (n= 43,151) into four major conflict types, including crop raiding, the most common conflict type, followed by human and livestock attacks and property damage. The severity of conflicts also varies markedly seasonally and inter-annually. Crop raiding peaks in May-July, during and at the end of the wet season when crops are maturing but is lowest in November during the late dry season and beginning of the early rains. Attacks on humans and livestock increased more than other conflict types in both Tsavo (from 2001) and Mara (from 2013). Relatively fewer people in Mara (7.2%, n=901) than in Tsavo (38.2%, n = 11714) felt threatened by wildlife, suggesting that the Maasai people are more tolerant of wildlife. Minimizing HWC is tightly linked to successfully resolving the broader conservation challenges, including enhancing ecosystem connectivity, community engagement and conservation benefits to communities.
Highlights
Wildlife often interacts with humans in different ways, when such interactions adversely affect or are perceived to affect the lives and livelihoods of people, conflicts occur (Woodroffe, Thirgood, & Rabinowitz, 2005)
Every event or incident observed by Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) field personnel, or reported to KWS by communities, conservation Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and governmental agencies are relayed as radio messages through the network
The human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) variables reported and recorded include the date of occurrence; conflict types
Summary
Wildlife often interacts with humans in different ways, when such interactions adversely affect or are perceived to affect the lives and livelihoods of people, conflicts occur (Woodroffe, Thirgood, & Rabinowitz, 2005). The African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants are key conflict animals and are involved in crop raiding and attacks on humans in these two continents (Gadd, 2005; Sitati, Walpole, Smith, & Leader-Williams, 2003; Sarker & Røskaft, 2014) Carnivores such as lions (Panthera leo), tigers (Panthera tigris), brown bears (Ursus arctos) and wolves (Canis lupus) often attack, and injure or kill people and livestock in many countries (Kolowski & Holekamp, 2006, Woodroffe et al, 2005; Patterson, Kasiki, Selempo, & Kays, 2004; Löe & Røskaft, 2004).
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