Abstract
Abstract. Indonesia has experienced several tsunamis triggered by seismic and non-seismic (i.e., landslides) sources. These events damaged or destroyed coastal buildings and infrastructure and caused considerable loss of life. Based on the Global Earthquake Model (GEM) guidelines, this study assesses the empirical tsunami fragility to the buildings inventory of the 2018 Sunda Strait, 2018 Sulawesi–Palu, and 2004 Indian Ocean (Khao Lak–Phuket, Thailand) tsunamis. Fragility curves represent the impact of tsunami characteristics on structural components and express the likelihood of a structure reaching or exceeding a damage state in response to a tsunami intensity measure. The Sunda Strait and Sulawesi–Palu tsunamis are uncommon events still poorly understood compared to the Indian Ocean tsunami (IOT), and their post-tsunami databases include only flow depth values. Using the TUNAMI two-layer model, we thus reproduce the flow depth, the flow velocity, and the hydrodynamic force of these two tsunamis for the first time. The flow depth is found to be the best descriptor of tsunami damage for both events. Accordingly, the building fragility curves for complete damage reveal that (i) in Khao Lak–Phuket, the buildings affected by the IOT sustained more damage than the Sunda Strait tsunami, characterized by shorter wave periods, and (ii) the buildings performed better in Khao Lak–Phuket than in Banda Aceh (Indonesia). Although the IOT affected both locations, ground motions were recorded in the city of Banda Aceh, and buildings could have been seismically damaged prior to the tsunami's arrival, and (iii) the buildings of Palu City exposed to the Sulawesi–Palu tsunami were more susceptible to complete damage than the ones affected by the IOT, in Banda Aceh, between 0 and 2 m flow depth. Similar to the Banda Aceh case, the Sulawesi–Palu tsunami load may not be the only cause of structural destruction. The buildings' susceptibility to tsunami damage in the waterfront of Palu City could have been enhanced by liquefaction events triggered by the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake.
Highlights
Indonesia regularly faces natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis because of its geographic location in a subduction zone of three tectonic plates (Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and Pacific plates) (Marfai et al, 2008; Sutikno, 2016)
We empirically developed building fragility curves for the 2018 Sunda Strait, 2018 Sulawesi–Palu, and 2004 Indian Ocean (Khao Lak–Phuket, Thailand) tsunamis based on the Global Earthquake Model (GEM) guidelines (Rossetto et al, 2014)
We explore the characteristics of building fragility curves for the 2018 Sunda Strait event and 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (IOT) in Khao Lak–Phuket, as well as for complex events, such as the 2018 Sulawesi–Palu tsunami in Palu City and the 2004 IOT in Banda Aceh, where the tsunamis may not be the only cause of structural destruction
Summary
Indonesia regularly faces natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis because of its geographic location in a subduction zone of three tectonic plates (Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and Pacific plates) (Marfai et al, 2008; Sutikno, 2016). After a few months of volcanic activity in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia, the Anak Krakatau volcano erupted on 22 December 2018, leading to its southwestern flank failure (Fig. 1c) It triggered a relatively short wave period tsunami (∼ 7 min) (Muhari et al, 2019), which devastated the western coast of Banten and the southern coast of Lampung with a death toll of 437 (Heidarzadeh et al, 2020; Muhari et al, 2019; National Agency for Disaster Management (BNPB), 2018; Syamsidik et al, 2020).
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