Chapter One - Toxicity of Naturally Occurring Anthraquinones

Hydrocolloids: Structure, preparation method, and application in food industry

Enzymes are readily inactivated in harsh micro-environment due to changes in pH, temperature, and ionic strength. Developing suitable and feasible techniques for stabilizing enzymes in food sector is critical for preventing them from degradation. This review provides an overview on chitosan (CS)-based enzymes encapsulation techniques, enzyme release mechanisms, and their applications in food industry. The challenges and future prospects of CS-based enzymes encapsulation were also discussed. CS-based encapsulation techniques including ionotropic gelation, emulsification, spray drying, layer-by-layer self-assembly, hydrogels, and films have been studied to improve the encapsulation efficacy (EE), heat, acid and base stability of enzymes for their applications in food, agricultural, and medical industries. The smart delivery design, new delivery system development, and in vivo releasing mechanisms of enzymes using CS-based encapsulation techniques have also been evaluated in laboratory level studies. The CS-based encapsulation techniques in commercial products should be further improved for broadening their application fields. In conclusion, CS-based encapsulation techniques may provide a promising approach to improve EE and bioavailability of enzymes applied in food industry.HighlightsEnzymes play a critical role in food industries but susceptible to inactivation.Chitosan-based materials could be used to maintain the enzyme activity.Releasing mechanisms of enzymes from encapsulators were outlined.Applications of encapsulated enzymes in food fields was discussed.

Hydrothermal treatment of lignocellulose waste for the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates copolymer with potential application in food packaging

Nowadays, oleogels have gained attentions as promising fat substitutes. Lipid-based compounds, mono- and diacylglycerols, fatty acids (FAs), fatty alcohols, waxes, sterols, ceramides, and phospholipids exhibit excellent oil-gelling potential due to their structural similarity to triacylglycerols. This review addresses how oleogels composition affects their nutritional functionality and further applications in food industry. The properties of oleogels structured by lipid-based compounds depend on structurant (concentration, type, ratio), solvent oil (type, FA profile, minor polar components), and processing conditions (cooling rate, shear force). Synergistic effects between FAs and fatty alcohols have been confirmed, and a thermodynamics-based screening model has been developed to assist identification of potential oil-structuring combinations, though further validation is needed. Oleogel offers health benefits contributed by its structure, oleogelator, and solvent oil type, including replacing harmful fats, delaying lipid release, inhibiting lipid-lipase interactions, and delivering bioactives, but long-term safety studies, especially for FAs and fatty alcohols, are required. Thus, modulating gel processing conditions and the composition of structurants and solvent oils can tailor the properties of oleogels, enhancing their nutritional function and broadening potential applications in food industry with desired product quality. Oleogels have been successfully applied in bakery, dairy, meats, spreads, margarine, confectionary, frying medium, and delivery systems, with complete fat substitution strategies developed for cheese, meat, spreads, and margarines. Further research could explore their nutritional roles and applications in functional foods, particularly considering the regulatory limitations and the influence of long-term consumption on human metabolisms.

L-Glutaminases are enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of the gamma-amido bond of L-glutamine residues, producing ammonia and L-glutamate. These enzymes have several applications in food and pharmaceutical industries. However, the L-glutaminases that hydrolyze free L-glutamine (L-glutamine glutaminases, EC 3.5.1.2) have different structures and properties with respect to the L-glutaminases that hydrolyze the same amino acid covalently bound in peptides (peptidyl glutaminases, EC 3.5.1.43) and proteins (protein-glutamine glutaminase, EC 3.5.1.44). In the food industry, L-glutamine glutaminases are applied to enhance the flavor of foods, whereas protein glutaminases are useful to improve the functional properties of proteins. This review will focus on structural backgrounds and differences between these enzymes, the methodology available to measure the activity as well as strengths and limitations. Production methods, applications, and challenges in the food industry will be also discussed. This review will provide useful information to search and identify the suitable L-glutaminase that best fits to the intended application.

Tyramine-derived hydroxycinnamic acid amines (HCAAT) are naturally occurring group of secondary metabolites present in various plant genera, such as Allium, Cannabis, Lycium, Polyganotum and Solanum. It belongs to the neutral, water-insoluble compounds and plays a role in plant growth, development and defence mechanism. The past two decades have seen a shift in the study of HCAAT from its role in plants to its potent biological activities. This review highlights the sources, roles in plants, biosynthetic pathways, metabolic engineering and chemical synthesis of HCAAT. The biological properties of HCAAT remain the focus in this paper, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-melanogenesis and neuroprotective properties. The effects of food processing and technology on HCAAT are also discussed. Given the current research gap, this review proposes future directions on the study of HCAAT, as well as its potential applications in food and pharmaceutical industry.

Peach gum polysaccharide (PGP), a natural biopolymer extracted from the resin of the peach tree, holds significant potential for applications in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. However, detailed analysis and exploration of its physical and chemical properties remain limited. This study investigates the physicochemical properties, rheological behavior and emulsion stability of PGPs extracted using thermal (TPGP) and enzymatic (EPGP) methods. The results indicate that both polysaccharide fractions exhibit similar arabinogalactan (AG) structures, with high contents of arabinose and xylose, as evidenced by FTIR spectra and monosaccharide composition. However, high-performance size-exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) revealed differences in molecular weights and chain conformations, leading to distinct rheological behaviors. PGP solutions exhibited pseudoplastic flow behavior, with TPGP demonstrating higher viscosity due to its larger molecular weight (1.295 × 107 g mol−1). As the PGP concentration increased, gel strength and emulsion stability improved significantly. This study provides more insight into the rheological and emulsifying characteristics of PGPs extracted by varied methods, facilitating their potential applications in food industries.

Rice bran: Nutritional values and its emerging potential for development of functional food—A review

Pomelo pectin and fiber: Some perspectives and applications in food industry

Polysaccharides a large chain of simple sugars covalently linked by glycosidic bonds which are obtained from living organisms and microbes commercially used in food and pharmaceutical industries. Marine macroalgae or seaweed is an unexploited natural source of polysaccharides, which contains many variant phytonutrients whose cells are enriched with sulfated polysaccharides which have been progressively read these days for their potential value in food and pharmaceutical applications. This review aims the exploration of these polysaccharides in food applications, with a focus on its types and biological properties in the view of food application.

The preparation of modified nano-starch and its application in food industry

Throughout history, nature has been acknowledged for being a primordial source of various bioactive molecules in which human macular carotenoids are gaining significant attention. Among 750 natural carotenoids, lutein, zeaxanthin and their oxidative metabolites are selectively accumulated in the macular region of living beings. Due to their vast applications in food, feed, pharmaceutical and nutraceuticals industries, the global market of lutein and zeaxanthin is continuously expanding but chemical synthesis, extraction and purification of these compounds from their natural repertoire e.g., plants, is somewhat costly and technically challenging. In this regard microbial as well as microalgal carotenoids are considered as an attractive alternative to aforementioned challenges. Through the techniques of genetic engineering and gene-editing tools like CRISPR/Cas9, the overproduction of lutein and zeaxanthin in microorganisms can be achieved but the commercial scale applications of such procedures needs to be done. Moreover, these carotenoids are highly unstable and susceptible to thermal and oxidative degradation. Therefore, esterification of these xanthophylls and microencapsulation with appropriate wall materials can increase their shelf-life and enhance their application in food industry. With their potent antioxidant activities, these carotenoids are emerging as molecules of vital importance in chronic degenerative, malignancies and antiviral diseases. Therefore, more research needs to be done to further expand the applications of lutein and zeaxanthin.

Several of Zingiberaceae‘s rhizomes are aromatic and medicinal plants that have been used for thousands of years to enhance food’s taste, color, and aroma. The Zingiberaceae plant is found in various ecosystems in Southeast Asia, including cultivation areas and tropical rainforests. It can be found growing at the edge of the forest or well-rooted on the forest floor. This plant is one of the agroforestry product that usually used for cooking, perfume, dyes, and traditional medicine, especially ethnic medicine. Zingiberaceae products can be consumed in various forms, such as fresh, cooked, or boiled..This rhizome is effective in the treatment of several medical conditions such as digestive, respiratory, nervous, and muscle system problems, as well as other degenerative diseases. Phenolic compounds as secondary metabolites found in Zingiberaceae rhizome plants have been shown to have good biological activity for human health and as antibacterials in their applications in food and pharmaceutical products. The main objective of this review is to provide an overview of essential oils from Zingiberaceae rhizome commodities in terms of chemical components, biological activity, safety, and potential applications in the food industry. A number of literature search methods, in this article the narrative literature observation method is used, by searching for related keywords such as essential oils, zingiberaceae, rhizomes, phytochemicals, ginger, turmeric, ginger, Alpinia, in scientific article search engines such as Google Scholar, Scopus, Web search. of Science, and PubMed implemented. This narrative review will help researchers to describe research developments related to essential oils produced from the rhizome commodity of aromatic plants and medicinal plants from the Zingiberaceae family.The common use of rhizome essential oil in food and traditional medicine has attracted researchers worldwide for its application in the food industry. In this review, this topic is discussed in detail along with the results of scientific research supporting the application of essential oils in food and their functional properties, such as the main functional properties of antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal.

Biofilm is defined as a community in which microorganisms adhere to a living or inanimate surface, embedded in a gelatinous layer in a self-produced matrix of extra polymeric substances, adhered to each other, to a solid surface or to an interface. Adverse environmental conditions caused biofilm formation by inducing transition of microorganisms from planktonic cell form to sessile cell form and altered metabolism of bacteria in biofilms. Bacteria in biofilm matrix produce the specific secondary metabolites and gain robustness. Although biofilms are often accepted as potentially destructive for clinical and other industrial fields, many biofilms are beneficial and there are several reports related to the positive use of these biofilms. Beneficial biofilms could be used for wide applications (antibacterial, food fermentation, biofertilizer, filtration, biofouling, prevention of corrosion, antimicrobial agents, wastewater treatment, bioremediation and microbial fuel cells) in food, agricultural, medical, environment and other fields. According to previous reports, certain strains including Bacillus spp. (B. subtilis, B. thuringiensis, B. brevis, B. licheniformis, Bacillus polymyxa, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens) Lactobacillus spp. (L. casei, L. paracasei, L. acidophilus, L. plantarum, L. reuteri) Enterococcus spp. (E. casseliflavus, E. faecalis, E. faecium), Pseudomonas spp. (P. fluorescens, P. putida and P. chlororaphis), Acetobacter aceti, some fungi and Pseudoalteromonas sp., etc. led to beneficial biofilm formation. Food and agricultural industry may mostly benefit from biofilms in terms of their biochemical, fermentative, antimicrobial and biotechnological characteristics. Microorganisms in biofilm matrix could positively affect quality characteristics of food products such as texture, biochemical composition and sensorial properties via the production of specific secondary metabolites. Additionally, biofilms have an importance in water and soil safety of agricultural land. The present chapter highlights beneficial biofilm applications in food and agriculture industry.

The enzyme β-galactosidase can be obtained from a wide variety of sources such as microorganisms, plants, and animals. The use of β-galactosidase for the hydrolysis of lactose in milk and whey is one of the promising enzymatic applications in food and dairy processing industries. The enzyme can be used in either soluble or immobilized forms but the soluble enzyme can be used only for batch processes and the immobilized form has the advantage of being used in batch wise as well as in continuous operation. Immobilization has been found to be convenient method to make enzyme thermostable and to prevent the loss of enzyme activity. This review has been focused on the different types of techniques used for the immobilization of β-galactosidase and its potential applications in food industry.