Abstract
Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are a group of evolutionarily highly conserved ubiquitous proteins that have significant function as facilitators of signal transduction. Plant MAPK cascades regulate a variety of processes in development and stress responses. MAPKs play key roles in a wide array of abiotic and biotic stress responses, such as drought, salinity, high/low temperatures, wounding, and pathogen invasion. Cascades of MAPK relay signals primarily through reversibly phosphorylated MAPKs, namely, MAPK kinases (MAPKKs) and MAPK kinase kinases (MAPKKKs). MAPK, MAPKK, and MAPKKK are networked in specific signal transduction pathways that affect diverse upstream receptors and downstream target components.
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