Chapter 16 - Glacial landscape evolution during the Holocene in Northern Central Europe

Abstract

Northern Central Europe is dominated by the Late Pleistocene glacial landscapes, drained in the west to the North Sea by the Elbe River, and in the centre and the east to the Baltic Sea by the Oder, Vistula, Neman and Daugava Rivers. There are abundant lakes in the region and the Baltic Sea coast is shaped by cliffs, lagoons, spits, bay bars and beach plains with dunes. The climate was more continental during the Early Holocene, with warm and stable temperatures 1.0°C to 3.5°C higher than at present during the Middle Holocene. Modern climate is temperate, maritime in the west and more continental in the east. Significant environmental transformations during the Holocene were mostly expressed by plant and fauna migrations, lake evolution and soil formation. The sea level in the southern Baltic basin was almost continuously rising, starting from c. −50m below the present sea level during the Yoldia Sea phase (11.7–10.3cal. ka BP). The connection with the ocean was cut off temporarily at ~10.3cal ka BP and the sea was transformed into the freshwater Ancylus Lake. It was followed by the transgression phases of the Mastogloia Sea at 8.5–8.4cal ka BP and the Littorina Sea at ~8.3cal ka BP, all connected with the coastline migration. During the Early Holocene, the glacial landscape was transformed by progressive degradation of permafrost and melting of remnant dead ice. Most postglacial lakes were formed during that time and the hydrographic network was closely dependent on water-level fluctuations in the Baltic Sea basin and on glacioisostatic adjustment of the area. Rapid warming during the Early Holocene induced vegetation transformation, from boreal forest and open grasslands to mixed and deciduous forest. The Neolithic was initiated around 7.5cal ka BP, resulting in an increasing number of settlements and intensified farming activities. Human impact on vegetation, habitats and landscape got stronger during the Bronze and Iron Ages as well as during the Roman and Medieval Periods. Abrupt expansion of farming, industry and settlements, accompanied by extensive transformation of landscape and hydrographic network occurred during the last 200 years.