Chapter 129 - Hyperparasitism

Abstract

This chapter focuses on the hymenopteran microwasps in which hyperparasitism occur. There are a variety of behaviors of hyperparasitoids depending on the species of secondary and primary microwasp parasitoids, which in turn are influenced by the species of phytophagous host, often an insect pest. In addition, there is an economic interest in hyperparasitism because if primary parasitoids are considered to be beneficial insects when used in biological control programs, it would seem that hyperparasitoids that attack primary parasitoids would be detrimental. However, hyperparasitoids may play a positive role by preventing extreme oscillations of the primary parasitoids that might reduce the numbers of the phytophagous host enough to cause the local elimination of both the insect pest and the beneficial primary parasitoid. Hyperparasitism has evolved in only three insect orders: in Hymenoptera (in 17 families) and in a few species of Diptera and Coleoptera. Its evolution was preceded by that of primary parasitism that evolved in the Hymenoptera during the Jurassic period, about 135 mya. Hyperparasitism intrigues entomologists because of its multidisciplinary relationship to evolution, ecology, behavior, biological control, taxonomy, and mathematical models.