Abstract
This study investigates: (1) the changes in three major health-related factors—physical activity, non-physical-activity health behavior (i.e., diet quality, alcohol consumption, smoking, sleep quality), and depressive symptoms, and (2) how changes in physical activity were associated with changes in one’s depressive symptoms among young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults while controlling non-physical-activity health behavior and sociodemographic characteristics among young, middle-aged, and older adults before and after the COVID-19 outbreak lockdown in the United States. A total of 695 participants completed an online questionnaire via MTurk, and participants were asked to recall their physical activity, depressive symptoms, and non-physical-activity health behavior status in January and May of 2020. The IPAQ-SF was used to evaluate individuals’ physical activity, while the CES-D-10 was used to assess depressive symptoms. Covariates included non-physical-activity health behavior and sociodemographic factors. A Bayesian significance testing of changes was used to examine significant changes in physical activity, non-physical-activity behavior, and depressive symptoms in each age group while Bayesian regression analysis was employed to examine how the changes in physical activity were associated with respondents’ depressive symptoms while controlling for individual NHB and sociodemographic characteristics. The results showed that the participants tended to maintain their physical activity levels after the lockdown despite significant increases in sitting time among young and older adults. Decreases in moderate physical activity frequency were associated with a higher level of depressive symptoms (R2 = 17.1%). Although young and middle-aged cohorts experienced fewer differences in depressive symptoms compared to their counterparts in the older group, we found no significant heterogeneity effects in the relationships of interest across all age groups. Considering different influences of physical activity on depressive symptoms depending on different levels of activity and ages, more randomized clinical trials with program-based intervention studies should be conducted with different physical activity programs for different age populations.
Highlights
Since the COVID-19 outbreak, non-pharmaceutical public health interventions, such as shelter-in-place orders, social distancing, and isolation, have been implemented widely worldwide
During the COVID-19 pandemic, several studies consistently reported that poorer psychological well-being and mental health was present compared to the pre-COVID-19 era due to financial-related stress from insecurity and financial losses (Purtle, 2020), social isolation (Banerjee and Rai, 2020; Golechha, 2020; Pelizza and Pupo, 2020), confusion from conflicting messages from authorities and media platforms (Pfefferbaum and North, 2020), unpredictability, uncertainty, and seriousness of the disease (Zandifar and Badrfam, 2020), high levels of fear and panic behavior such as stockpiling of resources (Mattioli et al, 2020b; Shigemura et al, 2020), or poor perceived health (Wang et al, 2020)
Several scholars have warned that social isolation guidelines from the COVID-19 pandemic can increase physical inactivity, which negatively impacts physical health (Woods et al, 2020) and mental health (Pecanha et al, 2020)
Summary
Since the COVID-19 outbreak, non-pharmaceutical public health interventions, such as shelter-in-place orders, social distancing, and isolation, have been implemented widely worldwide. Even though the level and timing of these restrictions varied from county to county, and state to state, almost all states of the United States except for Arkansas, Iowa, Nebraska, and North Dakota, issued stay-at-home orders, forcing people to stay home as much as they can to prevent the spread of COVID19 since March 2020 (Elassar, 2020; Putt, 2020). This increased isolation has spurred noticeable lifestyle changes (Du et al, 2021). During the COVID-19 pandemic, several studies consistently reported that poorer psychological well-being and mental health was present compared to the pre-COVID-19 era due to financial-related stress from insecurity and financial losses (Purtle, 2020), social isolation (Banerjee and Rai, 2020; Golechha, 2020; Pelizza and Pupo, 2020), confusion from conflicting messages from authorities and media platforms (Pfefferbaum and North, 2020), unpredictability, uncertainty, and seriousness of the disease (Zandifar and Badrfam, 2020), high levels of fear and panic behavior such as stockpiling of resources (Mattioli et al, 2020b; Shigemura et al, 2020), or poor perceived health (Wang et al, 2020)
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