Ceruloplasmin, hephaestin and zyklopen: the three multicopper oxidases important for human iron metabolism

Abstract

Multi-copper oxidases are a group of proteins which demonstrate enzymatic activity and are capable of oxidizing their substrates with the concomitant reduction of dioxygen to two water molecules. For some multi-copper oxidases there has been demonstrated ferroxidase activity which is related to their specific structure characterized by the presence of copper centres and iron-binding sites. Three multi-copper oxidases have been included in this group: ceruloplasmin, hephaestin and zyklopen. Multi-copper oxidases which are expressed in different tissues are capable of oxidizing a wide spectrum of substrates. Multi-copper oxidases are capable of oxidizing a wide spectrum of substrates. Ceruloplasmin exhibits antioxidant activity as well as being involved in many other biological processes. The observations of phenotypic effects of absence or low expression of multi-copper ferroxidase-coding genes suggest that the main role of these proteins is taking part in iron metabolism. The main role of ceruloplasmin in iron turnover is oxidizing Fe2+ into Fe3+, a process which is essential for iron binding to transferrin (the main iron-transporting protein), as well as to ferritin (the main iron-storage protein). The function of hephaestin as ferroxidase is essential for iron binding to apotransferrin in the lamina propria of the intestinal mucosa, a process that is important for further transport of iron to the liver by the portal vein. Available data indicate that zyklopen is responsible for the placental iron transport. The presence of three multi-copper oxidases with ferroxidase activity emphasizes the significance of oxidation for iron metabolism. The distribution of multi-copper ferroxidases in many tissues ensures the proper iron turnover in the body as well as preventing toxic effects related to the presence of Fe2+ ions. These ions contribute to generation of free radicals, including the highly reactive hydroxyl radical, through the Fenton and Haber-Weiss reactions.