Catalyst for solid polymer fuel cells and method for manufacturing the same

Abstract

The tumor microenvironment is the primary location in which tumor cells and the host immune system interact. Different host immune cell subsets are recruited into the tumor microenvironment via interactions between chemokines and chemokine receptors. These interactions have a distinct effect on tumor progression or regression, with implications on therapeutic outcomes. Chemokines are expressed by tumor cells, immune cells, and stromal cells. Their effect is to make immune cells migrate into the tumor microenvironment and regulate tumor immune responses in a spatiotemporal manner. Chemokines may target nonimmune cells in the tumor microenvironment, such as tumor cells and vascular-endothelial cells. Essentially, chemokines affect tumor immunity, shape tumor immune and biological phenotypes, and influence cancer progression, regression, therapy, and outcomes. Immune cells with antitumor effects may be recruited by chemokine-chemokine receptor pathways. Pro-tumor chemokine effects may also occur. In this case, pro-cancer immune cells may inhibit antitumor responses, promoting angiogenesis and cell “stemness,” thus contributing to cancer progression.