Carry-over effects in brown trout (Salmo trutta): hypoxia on embryos impairs predator avoidance by alevins in experimental channels

Abstract

Laboratory experiments on brown trout (Salmo trutta) embryos suggest that sublethal stress in the gravel nest such as hypoxia may alter the behaviour and survival of fish during the early juvenile period. Eggs and embryos were incubated at constant temperature (8.2 °C ± 0.6 standard deviation) under nonlethal dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations (3.0 mg·L–1; 26% air saturation level) and normoxia (10.3 mg·L–1DO; 90% air saturation level). The average survival from fertilization to end of embryonic development was 70% and 85% for hypoxic and normoxic groups, respectively. Hypoxic embryos grew slowly compared with their normoxic counterparts, but similar body sizes were observed when yolk-sac absorption was completed. Fish incubated as hypoxic embryos delayed their emergence from the gravel in experimental channels. In presence of freshwater sculpin (Cottus gobio), their swimming activity was reduced by 20%, on average, and predation was enhanced by 14% compared with normoxic groups. Results support the view that subtle events early in a fish's ontogeny can have carry-over effects on later periods of its life cycle, and this phenomenon may be a significant source of variation in salmonid fitness.