Abstract
An increase of nocturnal activity of ungulate species may represent a compensatory opportunity for energy intake, when activity in daylight is hindered by some disturbance events (e.g. hunting or predation). Therefore, mostly-diurnal and crepuscular species may be active in bright moonlight nights whereas others may shift their diurnal activity towards darkest nights to limit their exposure to predators. In natural and undisturbed conditions, the wild boar may be active both during the day and the night, with alternating periods of activity and resting. In this work, we tested whether activity patterns of wild boar, a species with poor visive abilities, were dependent on moon phases and environmental lightening. We aimed to assess if nocturnal activity could be better explained by variations of the lunar cycle or by the variations of environmental lightening conditions, evaluated by means of different measures of night brightness. Data were collected through camera-trapping in Central Italy in 2019–2020. Despite the poor visive abilities of the wild boar, we observed that this ungulate significantly reduced their activity by avoiding the brightest nights. In our study area, the wild boar has to cope with both human pressure (i.e. mostly hunters and poachers) and predation by the grey wolf. Furthermore, the nocturnal activity of wild boar peaked in mid-Autumn, i.e. when hunting pressure is the highest and when leaf fall may bring wild boar to range for long distances to find suitable resting sites for diurnal hours.
Highlights
Predation avoidance is a pivotal factor shaping the nocturnal activity of wildlife, which has been modeled by evolution to local environmental variables (Lima and Dill 1990; Ferrari et al 2009; Monterroso et al 2013)
Our findings provided the first strong evidence that wild boars limit their activity in nights with high light intensity, i.e. those with bright full moon and clear sky
Our analysis failed to show any clear lunar synodic pattern defined by environmental stimuli known as “Zeitgebers” (Daan and Aschoff 1982; Kronfeld-Schor et al 2013), as wild boar activity was explained by the variation in sky brightness better than by the variation in lunar day (Youthed and Moran 1969)
Summary
Predation avoidance is a pivotal factor shaping the nocturnal activity of wildlife, which has been modeled by evolution to local environmental variables (Lima and Dill 1990; Ferrari et al 2009; Monterroso et al 2013). Moonlight avoidance has been mostly recorded in small prey species, including rodents, marsupials and lagomorphs (Sutherland and Predavec 1999; Griffin et al 2005; Mori et al 2014; Viviano et al 2021). This behaviour has been poorly assessed in ungulates (Medici 2010; Brown et al 2011; Jasińska et al 2021; Table 1)
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