Abstract
Cardiovascular Biomarkers in Chronic Kidney DiseaseCardiovascular morbidity and mortality are markedly increased in chronic renal failure patients. Although it cannot be regarded as a cardiovascular disease risk equivalent, kidney dysfunction is considered an independent predictor of increased cardiovascular risk that increases with deteriorating kidney function. The association is a very complex one, and the term cardiorenal syndrome is now widely used. Cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney disease patients usually manifests as ischemic heart disease (in the form of angina, acute coronary syndrome or sudden cardiac death), cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, and congestive heart failure. Vascular disease includes atherosclerosis and vascular calcifications, and cardiomyopathy comprises left ventricular hypertrophy, cardiac fibrosis and left ventricular systolic and diastolic dysfunction. In addition to the well-established traditional risk factors such as hypertension, hyperlipidemia, insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus, the association is supported by synergistic action of non-traditional risk factors such as excessive calcium-phosphorus load, hyperparathyroidism, anemia, hemodynamic overload, malnutrition, inflammation, hyperhomocysteinemia, altered nitric oxide synthase and increased oxidative stress. This paper summarizes the current understanding of the significance of specific uremic retention solutes, natriuretic peptides, biochemical markers of disorders in calcium-phosphorus homeostasis, systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, and dyslipidemia.
Highlights
Kidney dysfunction is nowadays considered an independent predictor of an increased cardiovascular (CV) risk that increases with deteriorating kidney function
It cannot be regarded as a cardiovascular disease risk equivalent, kidney dysfunction is considered an independent predictor of increased cardiovascular risk that increases with deteriorating kidney function
Cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney disease patients usually manifests as ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, and congestive heart failure
Summary
Kidney dysfunction is nowadays considered an independent predictor of an increased cardiovascular (CV) risk that increases with deteriorating kidney function. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients usually manifests as ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease and congestive heart failure. Vascular disease comprises atherosclerosis and vascular calcifications, whereas cardiomyopathy comprises left ventricular hyperthrophy, cardiac fibrosis and left ventricular systolic and diastolic dysfunction [2,3,4]. Chronic kidney disease causes hypertension, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and eventually diabetes mellitus [5], and is associated with non-traditional risk factors such as excessive calcium-phosphorus load, hyperparathyroidism, anemia, hemodynamic overload, malnutrition, inflammation, hyperhomocysteinemia, altered nitric oxide (NO) synthase, and increased oxidative stress [1, 4]
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