Abstract
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is modified cellulose extracted from oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) biomass waste that has been prepared through etherification using sodium monochloroacetate (SMCA) in the presence of sodium hydroxide. In this research, CMC hydrogel was prepared using calcium chloride (CaCl2) as the chemical crosslinker. Throughout the optimization process, four important parameters were studied, which were: (1) CMC concentration, (2) CaCl2 concentration, (3) reaction time, and (4) reaction temperature. From the results, the best gel content obtained was 28.11% at 20% (w/v) of CMC with 1% (w/v) of CaCl2 in 24 h reaction at room temperature. Meanwhile, the degree of swelling for CMC hydrogel was 47.34 g/g. All samples were characterized using FT-IR, XRD, TGA, and FESEM to study and compare modification on the OPEFB cellulose. The FT-IR spectrum of CMC hydrogel showed a shift of COO− peaks at 1585 cm−1 and 1413 cm−1, indicating the substitution of Ca2+ into the CMC molecular chains. The XRD diffractogram of CMC hydrogel showed no observation of sharp peaks, which signified an amorphous hydrogel phase. The CrI value also proved the decrement of the crystalline nature of CMC hydrogel. TGA–DTG thermograms showed that the Tmax of CMC hydrogel at 293.33 °C is slightly better in thermal stability compared to CMC. Meanwhile, the FESEM micrograph of CMC hydrogel showed interconnected pores indicating the crosslinkages in CMC hydrogel. CMC hydrogel was successfully synthesized using CaCl2 as a crosslinking agent, and its swelling ability can be used in various applications such as drug delivery systems, industrial effluent, food additives, heavy metal removal, and many more.
Highlights
Polysaccharides are polymeric and complex carbohydrates that are generated as repeating units of monosaccharides, the simplest carbohydrates, and are linked by glycosidic linkages
The gel content of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) hydrogel steadily rose with CMC concentration starting at 10% (w/v) and reached a maximum of 20% (w/v) with 28.11%
The increase in gel content up to 20% (w/v) of CMC may be due to higher crosslinkages between CMC chains
Summary
Polysaccharides are polymeric and complex carbohydrates that are generated as repeating units of monosaccharides, the simplest carbohydrates, and are linked by glycosidic linkages. Polysaccharides make up the majority of biomass and are thought to account for more than 90% of the carbohydrate material in nature This natural polymer is formed either linearly with a straight chain of monosaccharides or branched with arms contingent on the monosaccharide link and the location of the carbon to which it is attached [1]. Because of its high crystallinity and rigidity as a result of its long and linear chains with intermolecular hydrogen bonding, cellulose is insoluble in water and most organic solvents [5]. To overcome this critical issue and improve the water insolubility disadvantage that restricts cellulose’s adaptability in numerous industries and applications, cellulose must undergo chemical modification such as esterification or etherification. The alteration of cellulose into CMC will enhance its physicochemical properties such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, swelling power, and water solubility
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