Abstract
Therapeutic options for the highly pathogenic human severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causing the current pandemic coronavirus disease (COVID-19) are urgently needed. COVID-19 is associated with viral pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome causing significant morbidity and mortality. The proposed treatments for COVID-19 have shown little or no effect in the clinic so far. Additionally, bacterial and fungal pathogens contribute to the SARS-CoV-2-mediated pneumonia disease complex. The antibiotic resistance in pneumonia treatment is increasing at an alarming rate. Therefore, carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs), such as fullerene, carbon dots, graphene, and their derivatives constitute a promising alternative due to their wide-spectrum antimicrobial activity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and capacity to induce tissue regeneration. Furthermore, the antimicrobial mode of action is mainly physical (e.g., membrane distortion), characterized by a low risk of antimicrobial resistance. In this Review, we evaluated the literature on the antiviral activity and broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties of CBNs. CBNs had antiviral activity against 13 enveloped positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, including SARS-CoV-2. CBNs with low or no toxicity to humans are promising therapeutics against the COVID-19 pneumonia complex with other viruses, bacteria, and fungi, including those that are multidrug-resistant.
Highlights
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF CBNS AGAINST VIRAL INFECTIONThe antiviral mechanisms of fullerenes, carbon dots, graphene, and related carbon nanomaterials are still not completely understood
Therapeutic options for the highly pathogenic human severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARSCoV-2) causing the current pandemic coronavirus disease (COVID-19) are urgently needed
Carbon-based nanomaterials have been evaluated for their antiviral activity against 13 enveloped viruses (HCoV, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), HIV-1 and also the type 2 (HIV-2), feline coronavirus (FCoV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), Moloney murine leukemia virus (M-MuLV), zika virus (ZIKV), dengue virus (DENV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and SARS-CoV-2), all single-stranded positivesense RNA viruses belonging to the Baltimore group IV
Summary
The antiviral mechanisms of fullerenes, carbon dots, graphene, and related carbon nanomaterials are still not completely understood. Antiviral fullerene derivatives can inhibit viral entry, modify its morphology and functions, and block viral replication.[30] Studies about the antiviral mechanism of action of C60-fullerene derivatives against viruses such as HIV-1 and HIV-2 suggest that the C60 carbon sphere fits well to the active site of some HIV enzymes such as the HIV-protease.[135,137,143] In the same research line, a diamido diacid diphenyl fulleroid derivative (2c) was found to be an inhibitor of HIV-1 and HIV-2 protease and reverse transcriptase at low micromolar concentrations.[143] More recently, the series of fullerene derivatives shown in Figure 3 exhibited potential inhibition of hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS5B polymerase and HCV NS3/4 protease.[142] On the other hand, the mechanism of aqueous fullerene preparations of C60fullerene combined with PVP (C60/PVP) against influenza A virus has been reported.[167] Influenza A virus is a negative-sense single-stranded virus that belongs to the Baltimore group V.166.
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