Cancer immunotherapy: Progress and challenges in the clinical setting

Abstract

Cancer immunologists have made enormous efforts to prove that innate and adaptive immune cells recognize tumor cells and induce tumor rejection in experimental animal models. These observations provided the rationale to study the role of the immune system in the control of tumor growth in cancer patients and to develop immunotherapeutic strategies to treat patients with cancers. Several lines of evidence suggest that anti-tumor immune responses may correlate with better clinical outcome in patients with cancers. Among them is the correlation between the presence of tumor-infiltrating T cells and the improved clinical outcome for patients with solid tumors [1–3]. In addition, a number of immunotherapies, such as high-dose IL-2 [4] and TA-specific monoclonal antibodies (mAb) [5], have provided long-term clinical benefits to a minority of cancer patients. Most importantly, the recent approval by the US FDA of the mAb ipilimumab directed against the co-inhibitory molecule CTLA-4 for patients with unresectable or metastatic melanoma represents a major breakthrough for mAb-based therapies in oncology practice [6]. The successful outcome of the randomized phase III clinical trial with ipilumumab has provided the much-needed incontrovertible clinical evidence that in humans, as in experimental animal models, the host’s immune system can control tumor growth. Furthermore, it has infused a considerable amount of optimism among tumor immunologists and clinical oncologists about the clinical potential of immunotherapy for the treatment of advanced cancers. However, there are also many examples of spontaneous or vaccine-induced TA-specific T- and B-cell immune responses that do not correlate with improved clinical status [7–9]. This discrepancy between immune and clinical responses underlines the need to better dissect the molecular and cellular events leading to tumor rejection in humans. Such an endeavor has greatly benefited from the molecular identification of TA expressed by human tumor cells, which are recognized by T cells and antibodies [5, 10, 11]. As a result, TA-specific immunotherapies have been implemented in clinical trials with molecularly defined cancer vaccines, TA-specific mAb and adoptive transfer of TA-specific T cells. Novel generations of cancer vaccines with molecularly defined TAs and potent adjuvants like toll-like receptor ligands appear to stimulate strong TA-specific T-cell responses but have shown evidence of clinical benefits in only a minority of patients with advanced cancer [7, 8, 12]. The adoptive transfer of TA-specific T cells remains technically challenging and the promising data obtained in terms of objective clinical responses and durability of responses from small monocentric clinical trials will need to be further confirmed in large multicenter clinical trials [13]. TA-specific mAb are clinically effective in a number of hematological malignancies and solid tumors and are routinely used in the clinic [5]. We now have a better understanding of the multiple mechanisms of tumor-induced immune escape, which are likely to cause the failure of the spontaneous or vaccine-induced immune responses to promote tumor regression in humans. In the tumor microenvironment, a number of negative regulators dampens anti-tumor immune responses and/or their therapeutic efficacy, including the production of cytokines (like TGF-β or IL-10), suppressive cells (regulatory T cells, myelosuppressive dendritic cells), defective antigen presentation by tumor cells (HLA or tumor antigen loss, antigen processing machinery defects), amino-acid catabolizing enzymes (indoleamine-2-3dioxygenase, arginase) and co-inhibitory pathways (like CTLA-4/CD28, PD-1/PD-L1) [14–17]. As a consequence, a number of therapies to specifically target these pathways are being developed to enhance TA-specific immune responses and to increase the likelihood of clinical benefits. In this article, commissioned to recognize National Cancer Survivors Day (the first Sunday in June each year, 5 June in 2011, see www.ncsdf.org), we will comment on the successes of immunotherapy of cancer in the clinical setting. In addition, we will discuss the challenges to optimize the use of cancer immunotherapies in the clinic.