Abstract
In this review, we evaluate recent studies that employ neuromodulation, in the form of non-invasive brain stimulation, to improve sleep in both healthy participants, and patients with psychiatric disorders. We review studies using transcranial electrical stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and closed-loop auditory stimulation, and consider both subjective and objective measures of sleep improvement. Neuromodulation can alter neuronal activity underlying sleep. However, few studies utilizing neuromodulation report improvements in objective measures of sleep. Enhancements in subjective measures of sleep quality are replicable, however, many studies conducted in this field suffer from methodological limitations, and the placebo effect is robust. Currently, evidence that neuromodulation can effectively enhance sleep is lacking. For the field to advance, methodological issues must be resolved, and the full range of objective measures of sleep architecture, alongside subjective measures of sleep quality, must be reported. Additionally, validation of effective modulation of neuronal activity should be done with neuroimaging.
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