Can Consumer Attitudes Forecast Household Spending in the United States? Further Evidence from the Michigan Survey of Consumers

Abstract

1. IntroductionFor many years, indices of consumer sentiment have been used to provide government policy makers, economic forecasters, and business managers with timely and important information on consumer attitudes. This interest in consumer attitudes reflects a widespread belief that the sentiments and expectations of individual consumers directly affect the direction of the U.S. economy. Reinforcing this belief is the fact that consumer spending accounts for about two thirds of the nation's Gross Domestic Product (GDP).Thus far, most analyses of consumer attitudes as a leading indicator of household spending have focused primarily on the predictive power of the Michigan Index of Consumer Sentiment (ICS). The results of these studies have, however, been mixed. For example, an early study by Lovell (1975) finds that measures of consumer attitudes based on the Michigan Survey of Consumers are unreliable predictors of future consumption.1 Mishkin (1978), using a stock adjustment model, shows that the ICS provides good explanatory power for changes in consumer durables. Carroll, Fuhrer, and Wilcox (1994, henceforth CFW) find that the Michigan Index has some incremental predictive power as regards forecasting household spending. Souleles (2001), using the microdata of the Michigan Survey, reports that consumer sentiment is useful in forecasting future consumption, even when controlling for a number of macroeconomic variables. On the other hand, Howrey (2001) finds that both lagged and current-quarter monthly values of the ICS are generally insignificant when control variables are present in the equations of total personal consumption expenditures (PCE), consumer spending on durable goods as well as on services.Lovell (2001) recently suggests that the Index of Consumer Expectations (ICE) developed by the University of Michigan may be a better proxy for consumer confidence than the ICS. This is because the ICE is derived solely from a subset of forward-looking questions, in contrast to the ICS, which is based on both forward-looking questions and current-conditions questions.2 In view of Lovell's (2001) insightful suggestion, the main objective of this article is to empirically examine the predictive power of the ICE in forecasting U.S. consumption growth. Moreover, it would be useful to compare the informational content of the ICE and the ICS to determine whether indices of consumer confidence reflect consumers' perception of future economic conditions.In this article, we use the reduced-form equation given in CFW (1994) to examine the forecasting ability of the ICE and the ICS. Our empirical results indicate that the lagged values of the ICE predict changes in total PCE much better than those of the ICS. Furthermore, when tested separately in the reduced-form equation, the forward-looking questions are generally significant, suggesting that they contain valuable information about consumers' expectations of future economic outlook. We also extend our analysis to the study by CFW (1994). The results of this analysis confirm the view that the ICE has greater incremental predictive power than the ICS.The remainder of this article is structured as follows: Section 2 describes the five core questions used in the Michigan Surveys of Consumers. Section 3 discusses the econometric methodology and data. Section 4 reports our main empirical results. Section 5 is a case study based on CFW's (1994) data set. Section 6 presents some conclusions.2. The Michigan Surveys of ConsumersThe ICS, produced by the Michigan Surveys of Consumers, is derived from the following five core questions:3QFPr (Financial Position realization). We are interested in how people are getting along financially these days. Would you say that you (and your family living there) are better off or worse off financially than you were a year ago?QDurs (Durables purchases). …