Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine if breakfast macronutrient composition improved thermic effect of feeding (TEF) and appetite after a one-week adaptation in young women who habitually skip breakfast. A randomized, controlled study was conducted in females (24.1 ± 2 years), who skip breakfast (≥5 times/week). Participants were placed into one of three groups for eight days (n = 8 per group): breakfast skipping (SKP; no breakfast), carbohydrate (CHO; 351 kcal; 59 g CHO, 10 g PRO, 8 g fat) or protein (PRO; 350 kcal; 39 g CHO, 30 g PRO, 8 g fat). On days 1 (D1) and 8 (D8), TEF, substrate oxidation, appetite and blood glucose were measured. PRO had higher (p < 0.05) TEF compared to SKP and CHO on D1 and D8, with PRO having 29% higher TEF than CHO on D8. On D1, PRO had 30.6% higher fat oxidation than CHO and on D8, PRO had 40.6% higher fat oxidation than CHO. SKP had higher (p < 0.05) fat oxidation on D1 and D8 compared to PRO and CHO. There was an interaction (p < 0.0001) of time and breakfast on appetite response. In addition, CHO had a significant increase (p < 0.05) in PP hunger response on D8 vs. D1. CHO and PRO had similar PP (postprandial) glucose responses on D1 and D8. Consumption of PRO breakfast for 8 days increased TEF compared to CHO and SKP, while consumption of CHO for one week increased PP hunger response.
Highlights
Obesity is a worldwide epidemic that continues to grow [1]
SKP, breakfast skipping; CHO, carbohydrate‐based breakfast; PRO, protein‐based breakfast; 2 Data expressed as percent energy of energy intake. To our knowledge this is the first study to examine the effect of breakfast macronutrient composition over an eight-day adaptation period on PP energy metabolism, appetite response, glucose response, and 24-h food intake in breakfast skipping females
This study demonstrates that daily consumption of a breakfast higher in protein for one week increases Thermic effect of feeding (TEF) and fat oxidation compared to a carbohydrate-based breakfast, and that breakfast consumption, in general, has more benefits related to energy expenditure than breakfast skipping in the short-term
Summary
Obesity is a worldwide epidemic that continues to grow [1]. Added weight is a risk factor for a number of health concerns such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease, the risk of developing a chronic health condition is amplified when weight gain occurs in early adulthood [2,3,4,5].new approaches to reduce or prevent weight gain in this age group are essential for preventing the onset of obesity and chronic disease later in life.Breakfast is often cited as the most important meal of the day for children [6,7], but this is true for adults. New approaches to reduce or prevent weight gain in this age group are essential for preventing the onset of obesity and chronic disease later in life. Breakfast skipping is associated with an increased risk of weight gain and obesity in young adults [8,9] as well as elevated cholesterol levels, overeating, and poor blood glucose control [6,10]. Nearly 40% of American adults skip breakfast on any given day [11], despite the proven health benefits associated with eating breakfast such as increased feelings of fullness, reduced post-meal cravings [12,13,14,15,16,17], improved body composition [18], and a decreased incidence of overweight and obesity [6,19]. Due to the lack of long-term randomized controlled trials, a strong link between breakfast skipping and health risk has not been established [8,16]
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