Abstract
Post-conflict third-party affiliation has been reported to have different functional meanings, one of them being consolation. Here, we tested the main hypotheses that have been put forth to explain the presence of this phenomenon at a functional level in the bonobo: Self-Protection Hypothesis, Victim-Protection Hypothesis, Relationship-Repair or Substitute for Reconciliation Hypothesis, and Consolation Hypothesis. By analyzing the data collected over 10 years, we investigated what factors affected the distribution of both spontaneous third party affiliation (initiated by the bystander) and solicited third party affiliation (initiated by the victim). We considered factors related to the individual features (sex, rank, age) of victim and bystander, their relationship quality (kinship, affiliation), and the effect that third party affiliation had on the victim (such as protection against further attacks and anxiety reduction). Both spontaneous and solicited third party affiliation reduced the probability of further aggression by group members on the victim (Victim-Protection Hypothesis supported). Yet, only spontaneous affiliation reduced victim anxiety (measured via self-scratching), thus suggesting that the spontaneous gesture – more than the protection itself – works in calming the distressed subject. The victim may perceive the motivational autonomy of the bystander, who does not require an invitation to provide post-conflict affiliative contact. Moreover, spontaneous - but not solicited - third party affiliation was affected by the bond between consoler and victim, being the relationship between consoler and aggressor irrelevant to the phenomenon distribution (Consolation Hypothesis supported). Spontaneous affiliation followed the empathic gradient described for humans, being mostly offered to kin, then friends, then acquaintances. Overall, our findings do not only indicate the consolatory function of spontaneous third-party affiliation but they also suggest that consolation in the bonobo may be an empathy-based phenomenon.
Highlights
Via the Post Conflict-Matched Control method (PC-MC [45]) we evaluated the presence of reconciliation, spontaneous and solicited third party affiliation
Via Linear Mixed Model (LMM), we evaluated which variables could explain the variation in the frequency of spontaneous third party affiliation (Table 2 and 3)
Via Linear Mixed Model (LMM), we evaluated which variables could explain the variation in the frequency of spontaneous third party affiliation (Table 2 and 4)
Summary
‘‘Given the morphological similarity between ape consolation behavior and expressions of sympathetic concern in young children, which touch and embrace distressed individuals, we follow the Darwinian principle of parsimony that if two related species show similar behavior under similar circumstances, the psychology behind their behavior is likely similar, too.’’ (De Waal, p. 97, [1]). The Relationship-Repair Hypothesis (chimpanzees [13]) or Substitute for Reconciliation Hypothesis (mandrills [42]; chimpanzees [11]) predicts that third party affiliation functions to restore the relationship between former opponents According to this hypothesis – supported by studies on vervet monkeys [43] and baboons [44] showing kin-mediated reconciliation - third party affiliation toward the victim should occur more frequently by individuals that are closely bonded or kin-related to the aggressor [13,42] and whose relationship with the victim is irrelevant [13]. As the Relationship-Repair Hypothesis, the Consolation Hypothesis foresees a reduction of victim’s anxiety but the source of such benefit is completely different In this case the affinitive contact should be primarily received from a victim’s closely bonded/related partner whereas the strength of the bystander’s bond to the aggressor should be irrelevant [13]. If the Consolation Hypothesis is valid, the bystanders providing affiliation should be tightly bonded or kin related with the victim (Prediction 4a) and victim’s aggression-related anxiety should be reduced after the affiliation (Prediction 4b)
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