Body Image Across the Adult Lifespan: A Focus on Developmental and Cohort Effects, Midlife Women, and Romantic Relationships

Abstract

Body image disturbance has permeated Western society and is experienced by women and men of all ages and life stages (Grogan, 2016). Further, body dissatisfaction is associated with behavioural, psychological, physical, and interpersonal consequences (Cash, 2012; Grogan, 2016; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Accordingly, body image literature has expanded exponentially over the past 30 years. However, prominent gaps remain within the literature, three of which are considered in this thesis. These are: the trajectory, prevalence and cohort effects of body image disturbance across the adult lifespan for women and men, body dissatisfaction in midlife women, and the role body image disturbance plays in romantic relationships. The first of the three empirical papers examined patterns of developmental change and cohort effects in body image across the male and female adult lifespan. Body satisfaction was assessed in longitudinal data spanning six years, from 2010 to 2015. Cohort sequential latent growth curve modelling was utilized to assess patterns of mean-level change due to both aging and cohort effects in 15264 participants (62.9% women) aged between 19 – 74 years (M= 46.55, SD= 14.24). Results demonstrated a slight increase in body satisfaction across the lifespan for both men and women. Examination of cohort effects revealed that for women aged 54 years and below, all but two cohorts (24 – 29 & 34 – 39 years) displayed an upward trajectory in their body satisfaction over the 5-year period of assessment. No consistent cohort effects were evident for men. Finally, men consistently displayed higher levels of body satisfaction compared to women across the lifespan. This study provided insights into the trajectory of body image across the lifespan for men and women. The findings also suggest that body image may be improving for women in recent years. The second of the three empirical papers investigated the applicability of the Tripartite Influence Model (TIM) to midlife women. Female participants (N=206) aged 40-55 years (M = 46.75, SD = 4.54) completed measures related to sociocultural pressures, thin-ideal internalisation, appearance comparison, body dissatisfaction, bulimic symptoms, restrained eating, and psychological distress. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the model. As predicted, greater peer and media pressure were associated with greater appearance comparison which in turn was associated with greater body dissatisfaction. Also as predicted, greater body dissatisfaction was associated with greater restrained eating and bulimic symptoms, which in turn were associated with greater psychological distress. Contrary to predictions, none of the sociocultural influences were associated with thin-ideal internalization, and family pressure was not associated with appearance comparison. Furthermore, appearance comparison was not associated with body dissatisfaction. A number of unpredicted associations also emerged. Family and media pressure were directly associated with body dissatisfaction, and peer pressure was directly associated with psychological distress. Furthermore, unpredicted direct associations were also found between thin-ideal internalisation and disordered eating, and between appearance comparison and both bulimic symptoms and psychological distress. Overall, the findings provided partial support for applicability of the TIM for midlife women. The third of the three empirical papers sought to advance understanding of the associations between body image and relationship outcomes within heterosexual romantic relationships. In two studies (Study 1: N = 197 couples, Mage = 22.99; Study 2: N = 97 couples, Mage = 25.36), both members of dating and/or married couples reported on their body image, perceptions of partner’s attraction to the self, own attraction toward the partner, and relationship satisfaction. Study 2 also incorporated measures of participants’ body mass index (BMI) and sexual satisfaction. Across both studies, women who had poorer body image perceived their partner to be less attracted to them (irrespective of their partners’ actual attraction to them or how attracted they were to their partner), which in turn was associated with lower relationship and sexual satisfaction. For men, attraction to their partner was consistently associated with their own relationship satisfaction. Results demonstrated that projection biases are a possible mechanism through which body image is associated with romantic relationship outcomes. In sum, the results of this compendium of research speak to important aspects within the body image literature. Namely, results suggest that body dissatisfaction appears to improve across the female and male lifespan, and appears to be improving in younger cohorts. Further, we find that the Tripartite Influence Model (Thompson et al., 1999) is partially applicable to midlife female populations. Finally, the last two studies suggest that projection biases are a potential mechanism through which body image may impede upon romantic relationship outcomes.