Abstract
Abstract With industry came intense mining and discoveries in geology and biology that revealed the roles of birds in evolution. Meanwhile a great naturalist and artist, John James Audubon, launched his epic attempt to document all bird species in the United States. Romantic writers and thinkers tried to share the spirit of birds. After Audubon died in 1851, his paintings and books inspired movements to conserve bird species, often led by women who were attending new colleges. Women led Audubon societies and campaigned against fashions in feathers that had nearly destroyed all ostriches and shore birds, even gulls. By 1918, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act united great powers of the world to protect birds. Writers of the early twentieth century made Audubon the saint of a spiritual movement.
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