Abstract
Seaweeds are marine macroalgae, some of which are edible. They are rich in specific dietary fibers and also contain other characteristic biological constituents. Biological activities have been investigated mainly in animal studies, while very few results are available from human studies. Biomarkers of food intake (BFIs) specific to seaweed could play an important role as objective measurements in observational studies and dietary intervention studies. Thus, the health effects of seaweeds can be explored and understood by discovering and applying BFIs.This review summarizes studies to identify candidate BFIs of seaweed intake. These BFIs are evaluated by a structured validation scheme.Hydroxytrifuhalol A, 7-hydroxyeckol, C-O-C dimer of phloroglucinol, diphloroethol, fucophloroethol, dioxinodehydroeckol, and/or their glucuronides or sulfate esters which all belong to the phlorotannins are considered candidate biomarkers for brown seaweed. Fucoxanthinol, the main metabolite of fucoxanthin, is also regarded as a candidate biomarker for brown seaweed. Further validation will be needed due to the very limited number of human studies.Further studies are also needed to identify additional candidate biomarkers, relevant specifically for the red and green seaweeds, for which no candidate biomarkers emerged from the literature search. Reliable BFIs should also ideally be found for the whole seaweed food group.
Highlights
Seaweeds or macroalgae, including species of brown, red, and green seaweeds, have been consumed as food in East Asia for a long time, but with more limited use in Europe and North America, except for the use of certain constituents as additives [1]
Pyrogallol and phloroglucinol sulfates would not be considered as plausible biomarkers of seaweed, they can be measured in urine after seaweed intake
Only a few potentially specific compounds have been found in urine or plasma after intake of seaweeds in human studies, so the number of potential BFIs is small for the groups of brown seaweeds and for the whole group
Summary
Seaweeds or macroalgae, including species of brown, red, and green seaweeds, have been consumed as food in East Asia for a long time, but with more limited use in Europe and North America, except for the use of certain constituents as additives [1]. Seaweeds may supply several nutrients and have been proposed to promote health and counteract a wide range of conditions and diseases, such as obesity, oxidative stress, hypertension, digestive problems, thrombosis, and even cancer [2–5]. This builds largely on very limited evidence from animal and in vitro studies. There are a few trials with seaweeds or seaweed preparations in humans investigating effects on blood pressure [5, 6], appetite [7, 8], inflammation [9], and insulin response [10].
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