Abstract
Vitamin K (VK) plays many important functions in the body. The most important of them include the contribution in calcium homeostasis and anticoagulation. Vascular calcification (VC) is one of the most important mechanisms of renal pathology. The most potent inhibitor of this process—matrix Gla protein (MGP) is VK-dependent. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients, both non-dialysed and hemodialysed, often have VK deficiency. Elevated uncarboxylated matrix Gla protein (ucMGP) levels indirectly reflected VK deficiency and are associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular events in these patients. It has been suggested that VK intake may reduce the VC and related cardiovascular risk. Vitamin K intake has been suggested to reduce VC and the associated cardiovascular risk. The role and possibility of VK supplementation as well as the impact of anticoagulation therapy on VK deficiency in CKD patients is discussed.
Highlights
Vitamin K (VK) is a fat-soluble vitamin, less popular compared to others, but performs many very important functions in the body [1,2]
Elevated plasma dp-uncarboxylated MGP (ucMGP) was associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality (1.84; 95% CI 1.48, 2.28; five studies) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality
Posch et al [50] reported a more progressive reduction in estimated glomerular filtration rate in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) in three and four stages of Chronic kidney disease (CKD) receiving vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) in comparison to the control group. In contrast to these observations, results of the study conducted on pre-dialysis patients receiving VKAs indicate that the use of these anticoagulants was not associated with an accelerated kidney function decline or an earlier start of dialysis [51]
Summary
Vitamin K (VK) is a fat-soluble vitamin, less popular compared to others, but performs many very important functions in the body [1,2]. K1 is mainly found in green leafy vegetables, especially spinach, broccoli, kale, olive oil, as well as soyabean oil, whereas vitamin K2 is present in fish, chicken, milk, liver, cheese, butter, egg yolks, fermented soyabeans (natto) and vegetables, only in small amounts [1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9,10]. Intestinal bacterial flora in mammalians can produce vitamin K2 , these amounts are insufficient to cover the demand [1,2,3]. Menaquinone-4, which is the form of vitamin K2 , can be produced as a result of the endogenous conversion of phylloquinone [6]
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