Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent a prominent mechanism of transport and interaction between cells, especially microbes. Increasing evidence indicates that EVs play a key role in the physiological and pathological processes of pathogens and other symbionts. Recent research has focused on the specific functions of these vesicles during pathogen-host interactions, including trans-kingdom delivery of small RNAs, proteins and metabolites. Much current research on the function of EVs is focused on immunity and the interactions of microbes with human cells, while the roles of EVs during plant-microbe interactions have recently emerged in importance. In this review, we summarize recent research on the biogenesis of these vesicles and their functions in biology and pathology. Many key questions remain unclear, including the full structural and functional diversity of EVs, the roles of EVs in communication among microbes within microbiomes, how specific cargoes are targeted to EVs, whether EVs are targeted to specific destinations, and the full scope of EVs’ transport of virulence effectors and of RNA and DNA molecules.
Highlights
Specialty section: This article was submitted to Infectious Agents and Disease, a section of the journal Frontiers in Microbiology
We summarize recent research on the biogenesis of these vesicles and their functions in biology and pathology
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous group of spheroid or cup-shaped membranous structures released by living cells that function in extracellular spaces
Summary
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous group of spheroid or cup-shaped membranous structures released by living cells that function in extracellular spaces. EVs have been observed in a wide diversity of prokaryotes and eukaryotes (Yoon et al, 2014; Woith et al, 2019; Díaz-Garrido et al, 2021a,b; Liu et al, 2021a). EVs could transfer a wide range of bioactive molecules including enzymes, sterols, phospholipids, polysaccharides, pigments, toxins and nucleic acids (Oliveira et al, 2013; Brown et al, 2015; Peres da Silva et al, 2015; Woith et al, 2019; Munhoz da Rocha et al, 2020). Studies in bacteria found that both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria can produce EVs, usually called bacteria-derived EVs (BEVs). Gram-negative bacteria-produced BEVs can be divided into three types, namely outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), outer-inner membrane vesicles (O-IMVs), and explosive outer membrane vesicles (E-OMVs) (Table 1 and Figure 1A). Unlike Gram-negative bacteria, Gram-positive bacteria have a single cell membrane surrounded
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