Abstract
Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), such as estrogens, is a growing issue for human and animal health as they have been shown to cause reproductive and developmental abnormalities in wildlife and plants and have been linked to male infertility disorders in humans. Intensive farming and weather events, such as storms, flash flooding, and landslides, contribute estrogen to waterways used to supply drinking water. This paper explores the impact of estrogen exposure on the performance of slow sand filters (SSFs) used for water treatment. The feasibility and efficacy of SSF bioaugmentation with estrogen-degrading bacteria was also investigated, to determine whether removal of natural estrogens (estrone, estradiol, and estriol) and overall SSF performance for drinking water treatment could be improved. Strains for SSF augmentation were isolated from full-scale, municipal SSFs so as to optimize survival in the laboratory-scale SSFs used. Concentrations of the natural estrogens, determined by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), revealed augmented SSFs reduced the overall estrogenic potency of the supplied water by 25% on average and removed significantly more estrone and estradiol than nonaugmented filters. A negative correlation was found between coliform removal and estrogen concentration in nonaugmented filters. This was due to the toxic inhibition of protozoa, indicating that high estrogen concentrations can have functional implications for SSFs (such as impairing coliform removal). Consequently, we suggest that high estrogen concentrations could impact significantly on water quality production and, in particular, on pathogen removal in biological water filters.
Highlights
The water industry faces a huge challenge in supplying a sustainable and safe supply of drinking water to a growing world population
The addition of natural estrogens had little effect on D. discoideum growth (Table 4), and even the higher concentration (101 ng/ L) of estrogens produced a close to significant effect on generation time (Anova, p = 0.0508, Figure 3A)
The success of bioaugmentation is determined by two major principles: (1) the ability of the integrated bacteria to survive in the augmented environment and (2) the extent of degradation of the target pollutant.[51]
Summary
The water industry faces a huge challenge in supplying a sustainable and safe supply of drinking water to a growing world population. Common and emerging contaminants include the following: various metals; carcinogenic organic compounds; synthetic chemicals; pharmaceuticals; veterinary growth stimulators; ingredients in personal care products; and food supplements.[2−4] There is a growing body of scientific research indicating that these substances and in particular natural estrogens (estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3)) may interfere with the normal function of the endocrine system of humans and wildlife by (i) mimicking and/or antagonizing the effect of endogenous hormones and (ii) disrupting the synthesis and metabolism of endogenous hormones and hormone receptors, resulting in various reproductive and developmental abnormalities and disorders.[3,5−8]. Since estrogens are excreted by all humans and animals, these compounds enter the environment via several routes, including from sewage treatment works discharge (in the case of incomplete removal) and agricultural runoff. It is, unsurprising that recent surveys revealed broad occurrences of. Ozonation and granular activated carbon filters have been shown to be reasonably effective in removing EDC, but these methods are expensive and often difficult to incorporate into existing
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