Abstract
Animal venoms are widely recognized excellent resources for the discovery of novel drug leads and physiological tools. Most are comprised of a large number of components, of which the enzymes, small peptides, and proteins are studied for their important bioactivities. However, in spite of there being over 2000 venomous fish species, piscine venoms have been relatively underrepresented in the literature thus far. Most studies have explored whole or partially fractioned venom, revealing broad pharmacology, which includes cardiovascular, neuromuscular, cytotoxic, inflammatory, and nociceptive activities. Several large proteinaceous toxins, such as stonustoxin, verrucotoxin, and Sp-CTx, have been isolated from scorpaenoid fish. These form pores in cell membranes, resulting in cell death and creating a cascade of reactions that result in many, but not all, of the physiological symptoms observed from envenomation. Additionally, Natterins, a novel family of toxins possessing kininogenase activity have been found in toadfish venom. A variety of smaller protein toxins, as well as a small number of peptides, enzymes, and non-proteinaceous molecules have also been isolated from a range of fish venoms, but most remain poorly characterized. Many other bioactive fish venom components remain to be discovered and investigated. These represent an untapped treasure of potentially useful molecules.
Highlights
Animal venoms have long been considered an excellent resource for the discovery of novel, biologically active molecules
The cardiac responses to S. plumieri, P. volitans, and G. marmoratus venom were all attenuated by Stonefish antivenom (SFAV) [50], once again demonstrating the involvement of proteinaceous venom components
Despite the fact that extreme pain is the major symptom of fish envenomation, it has been suggested that both S. argus and P. volitans venom contain antinociceptive compounds [102,104]
Summary
Animal venoms have long been considered an excellent resource for the discovery of novel, biologically active molecules. Because the venom apparatus of fish are relatively primitive, they are thought to have been acquired fairly recently in evolutionary history and serve purely defensive purposes consistent with their involuntary expulsion mechanism The development of such a highly effective defense mechanism has allowed many venomous fish to adapt a sedentary lifestyle wherein they camouflage themselves among the rocks and detritus on the sea floor, erecting their venomous spines when perceived threats are near. The treatment for fish envenomation is primarily targeted at relieving the intense pain and involves soaking the affected area in hot water (typically 45–50 °C) for an extended period of time or until the pain subsides This is thought to denature the noxious proteinaceous components in the venom, though this theory has been challenged based on the observation that in some cases, hot water alleviates pain only while the affected area is immersed [39,47]. As they do not truly represent venoms, ichthyocrinotoxins will not be covered further by this review
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