Beyond linear narratives: Complex copper ore exploitation strategies in Early Bronze Age China revealed by geochemical characterization of smelting remains

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Despite decades of efforts to reconstruct the bronze production and metal distribution systems of the Shang period in Bronze Age China, there remains limited understanding of the ore choices and smelting practices of the Shang people. This study addresses this research gap by conducting a detailed investigation of Shang period copper ores and smelting remains uncovered at the Tongling site in the Middle Yangtze River valley. The results of lead isotope, copper isotope, trace element, and rare earth element (REE) pattern help to classify the slags from this site into two groups, associated with smelting sulphidic (Group A) and oxidic (Group B) copper ores, respectively. This finding not only serves as the first physical evidence of the use of sulphidic copper ores in Early Bronze Age China but also provides pivotal details of the copper resource exploitation strategies of the Shang people. It challenges the traditional narrative that the Shang people moved to this area solely for the high-grade supergene deposits. The parallel use of both supergene and hypogene ores at the same site complicates the notion of a linear, technological evolution from simpler to more advanced copper sources. Despite the presence of hypogene ores, the study reveals that the Shang people maintained labour-intensive smelting practices, including crushing slag to recover trapped metallic prills, to meet the demands of large-scale bronze casting. This nuanced approach to copper resource exploitation reflects a complex, context-dependent strategy rather than a technological revolution. By highlighting these intricate metallurgical choices, this research contributes to a broader rethinking of early technological development, underscoring the diversity and adaptability of ancient craft industries and their role in shaping Shang society.