Beyond “Dissatisfaction” and “Apology Fatigue”: Four Types of Japanese Official Apology

Abstract

This study critically assesses whether Japan has fully and sincerely apologized to its neighbors for many of its actions during World War II. Existing studies frequently assume that Japan has not provided such an apology. As a result, studies have provided explanations for this, but have not considered the form required of such an apology. This article, therefore, provides a fourfold analytical categorization of Japan's diplomatic apologies. The article reveals that not only has the Japanese government made a number of apologies, but they have varied in their sincerity and political purpose. This was ascertained by evaluating whether an apology was specific – resulting in a sincere acknowledgment of an event – and whether there were specific consequences – such as an action or some form of reparation. The results provide useful insights into the form that sincere and insincere apologies have taken, with the aim of undermining the cyclical “apology debate.”