Abstract
Oxidative stress and inflammation have been recognized as important contributors to the risk of chronic non-communicable diseases. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may regulate the antioxidant signaling pathway and modulate inflammatory processes. They also influence hepatic lipid metabolism and physiological responses of other organs, including the heart. Longitudinal prospective cohort studies demonstrate that there is an association between moderate intake of the omega-6 PUFA linoleic acid and lower risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), most likely as a result of lower blood cholesterol concentration. Current evidence suggests that increasing intake of arachidonic acid (up to 1500 mg/day) has no adverse effect on platelet aggregation and blood clotting, immune function and markers of inflammation, but may benefit muscle and cognitive performance. Many studies show that higher intakes of omega-3 PUFAs, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are associated with a lower incidence of chronic diseases characterized by elevated inflammation, including CVDs. This is because of the multiple molecular and cellular actions of EPA and DHA. Intervention trials using EPA + DHA indicate benefit on CVD mortality and a significant inverse linear dose–response relationship has been found between EPA + DHA intake and CVD outcomes. In addition to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory roles, omega-3 fatty acids are considered to regulate platelet homeostasis and lower risk of thrombosis, which together indicate their potential use in COVID-19 therapy.
Highlights
Despite the COVID-19 pandemic with more than 3.4 million deaths in the last year due to infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, chronic noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are still the most common global cause of morbidity and mortality
The analysis suggests that use of pure eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) formulations or formulations containing >60% EPA was associated with clinical benefits, whereas pure docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or DHA-rich formulations did not show benefits
It was estimated that every 1 g/day EPA + DHA corresponded to a 9% and 7% lower risk of myocardial infarction and total coronary heart disease, respectively, and to a 5.8% lower risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) events
Summary
Despite the COVID-19 pandemic with more than 3.4 million deaths in the last year due to infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, chronic noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are still the most common global cause of morbidity and mortality. Prolonged (unresolved) inflammation and continuous release of pro-inflammatory mediators can cause tissue damage, metabolic changes and loss of function [3,4,5]. This characterized by 5 to 15 times higher intake of LA than ALA [14], meaning that LA is the might explain why the metabolism of ALA to EPA and DHA appears to be limited in dominant substrate for the pathway This might explain why the metabolism of ALA to humans [14] and why the levels of AA in blood and in many cell types greatly exceed the EPA and DHA appears to be limited in humans [14] and why the levels of AA in blood levels of EPA and DHA [15]. In many cell types greatly exceed the levels of EPA and DHA [15]
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