Abstract
Given the wealth of literature on appearance manipulation generally, it is, perhaps, surprising that cosmetic usage receives so little empirical attention, and perhaps reflects a patriarchal approach to “appropriate” research areas. Incorporating a postfeminist approach, the current study aims to address, in part, this lacuna by providing a contemporary synopsis of the various and diverse motivations for cosmetic usage. Online, written responses to a semi-structured questionnaire were collected. In response to six broad questions, for example, “Why do you currently use cosmetics?”, respondents were encouraged to write, in as much detail as they liked, on their motivations for using cosmetics. Thematic analysis, using deductive and inductive approaches, revealed four main themes: “Multiple selves”—Conformity, Impression Management, and Judgment; Enhancement and Confidence; Fun, Creativity and Well-being; and Signification and Identity. Whilst some of these themes had been anticipated and, indeed, sign-posted in prior literature, the weight of interest in particular areas was unexpected (e.g., in terms of Fun, Creativity, and Well-being), whilst other areas did not receive the expected attention (e.g., in mate attraction). Additionally, and worthy of future research, entirely new areas also emerged (e.g., cosmetics for fun and creativity).
Highlights
The importance of cosmetic usage with regards to appearance manipulation has, until recently, been relatively under researched
Though restricted research suggests otherwise (Batres et al, 2018), it is possible that the increased usage of cosmetics over ovulation, and change in behaviors of others solicited by such use, may be attributable to selfpromotion and advertisement of a less restricted sociosexuality—in other words, cosmetic usage may be perceived by others as an indicator of “availability as a mate” as opposed to “facial attractiveness” (Korichi et al, 2008, 2011; Wagstaff, 2018)
Whilst some of these themes had been anticipated through current theory and research, inductive themes were at least as evident, and the focus of understanding regarding the motivations behind cosmetic usage has shifted
Summary
The importance of cosmetic usage with regards to appearance manipulation has, until recently, been relatively under researched. Research shows that being attractive confers an opposite-sex advantage in scholarship applications (Agthe et al, 2010), and that the attractive are less likely to be perceived as guilty of plagiarism in addition to receiving lesser punishment for it (Swami et al, 2017). Consistent with the research that in the main supports attractiveness enhancement through cosmetics, both lab and field studies, as conducted by evolutionary psychologists, have shown that women may use cosmetics effectively to enhance their attractiveness This has been evidenced through more proceptive male behavior in a courtship setting (Guéguen, 2008), increased tipping of waitresses with versus without cosmetics (Guéguen & Jacob, 2011; Jacob et al, 2010), tentative support for increased donations through solicitation from passers-by (Batres et al, 2019), and increased focus on cosmetic use, through time spent and quantity used, when near ovulation (Guéguen, 2012). Cosmetics may be used to facilitate the search for a long-term mate (Wagstaff, 2018), as evidenced by “the lipstick effect” in which cues to economic recession result in increased expenditure on products that increase attractiveness, including cosmetics (Hill et al, 2012; Marzoli et al, 2013)
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