Behavioural Descriptions of Indian Pangolins (Manis crassicaudata) in Captivity

Conservation breeding programs are an effective approach to addressing biodiversity loss. Captive populations are managed to maintain genetic diversity, yet there remains an “implementation gap” in effectively translating molecular genetic data into management. Technological advancements are facilitating rapid generation of genetic data, increasing accessibility for breeding programs. In 2010, Frankham and colleagues proposed a six‐stage process for establishing successful conservation breeding and release programs. Here, we describe the conservation breeding program for the critically endangered Bellinger River turtle ( Myuchelys georgesi ) and characterize the value of genetic sampling for informing management actions. By generating a chromosome‐level genome and population genetic data, we investigated past and present diversity and assessed relatedness among captive founders. We present a framework modeled on Frankham and colleagues six stages to assist managers in implementing genetic data into actionable conservation strategies. This framework, and worked case study, for managers aims to better guide implementation of genetic approaches into conservation breeding programs.

Amphibians are facing an extinction crisis, and conservation breeding pro- grammes are a tool used to prevent imminent species extinctions. Compared to mammals and birds, amphibians are considered ideal candidates for these programmes due to their small body size and low space requirements, high fecundity, applicability of reproductive technologies, short generation time, lack of parental care, hard wired behaviour, low maintenance requirements, relative cost effectiveness of such programmes, the success of several amphibian conservation breeding programmes and because captive husbandry capacity exists. Superficially, these reasons appear sound and conservation breeding has improved the conservation status of several amphibian species, however it is impossible to make generalisations about the biology or geo-political context of an entire class. Many threatened amphibian species fail to meet criteria that are commonly cited as reasons why amphibians are suitable for conservation breeding programmes. There are also limitations associated with maintaining populations of amphibians in the zoo and private sectors, and these could potentially undermine the success of conservation breeding programmes and reintroductions. We recommend that species that have been assessed as high priorities for ex situ conservation action are subsequently individually reassessed to determine their suitability for inclusion in conservation breeding programmes. The limitations and risks of maintaining ex situ populations of amphibians need to be considered from the outset and, where possible, mitigated. This should improve programme success rates and ensure that the limited funds dedicated to ex situ amphibian conservation are allocated to projects which have the greatest chance of success.

ABSTRACTConservation breeding programs play a crucial role in managing endangered wildlife, yet successful reintroduction remains challenging due to the low fitness of released individuals and complexities in conservation breeding. This study addresses these ongoing challenges by investigating morphological changes in the endangered Eastern loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus migrans) breeding program across multiple facilities in southern Canada and the United States, which was started in 1997. Using mixed‐effect animal models and estimated breeding values, we explore potential signals of evolutionary change in the program and assess variables contributing to morphological variation and change. Our findings reveal dynamic variation in shrike morphology across years and generations, with some evidence of evolutionary change in shrike mass. However, mass changes appear to be unrelated to selection in captivity. Additionally, recent gene flow from the wild correlates with mass and tarsus width, suggesting gene flow from the wild might drive some of the morphological change. This study provides insights into the evolutionary processes in shaping morphological traits in a conservation breeding program. The identified genetic drivers offer considerations for refining breeding practices and insights into evolutionary change in a conservation breeding program, presenting significant implications for wildlife managers and conservation practitioners. Importantly, observed temporal heterogeneities and trends are likely influenced not only by genetic changes but also by plasticity, and plasticity could mask simultaneously occurring genetic change. More research is needed to characterize and determine how and if plastic responses are directionally shaping phenotypic distributions in captivity.

Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), an endangered mammalian species under IUCN red list. In India, small population of Chines Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) are also present in the eastern part and protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 as a schedule I species along with Indian Pangolin. In national and international market the Indian Pangolin are highly in trade principally for its meat and scales. In curbing illegal wildlife, trade of Indian Pangolin on national and international level wildlife DNA forensics plays an important role in the identification of species from the seized material. We received n=15 wildlife seizures assumed to be the scales of Pangolin from different state forest and the custom department for molecular analysis. The seizures sequenced for two mitochondrial genes i.e. Cyt b and 16S rRNA, which are often used in wildlife DNA forensic to species identification. The sequences thus generated from these seizures compared to the NCBI database through blast search tool and our laboratory-generated references, yielding 100% similarity with Indian Pangolin. We identified twelve (n=12) Cyt b and five (n=5) 16S rRNA species specific SNPs, fixed in Indian Pangolin. This study shows, the importance of authenticated references, DNA sequence data availability, highlighting the application of DNA forensics in identifying species from scales.

Animal welfare and conservation breeding have overlapping and compatible goals that are occasionally divergent. Efforts to improve enclosures, provide enriching experiences, and address behavioral and physical needs further the causes of animal welfare in all zoo settings. However, by mitigating stress, increasing behavioral competence, and enhancing reproduction, health, and survival, conservation breeding programs must also focus on preparing animals for release into the wild. Therefore, conservation breeding facilities must strike a balance of promoting high welfare, while minimizing the effects of captivity to increase population sustainability. As part of the Hawaii Endangered Bird Conservation Program, San Diego Zoo Global operates two captive breeding facilities that house a number of endangered Hawaiian bird species. At our facilities we aim to increase captive animal welfare through husbandry, nutrition, behavior-based enrichment, and integrated veterinary practices. These efforts help foster a captive environment that promotes the development of species-typical behaviors. By using the “Opportunities to Thrive” guiding principles, we outline an outcome-based welfare strategy, and detail some of the related management inputs, such as transitioning to parental rearing, and conducting veterinary exams remotely. Throughout we highlight our evidence-based approach for evaluating our practices, by monitoring welfare and the effectiveness of our inputs. Additionally we focus on some of the unique challenges associated with improving welfare in conservation breeding facilitates and outline concrete future steps for improving and evaluating welfare outcomes that also meet conservation goals.

Exploration behavior can have profound effects on individual fitness. Consequently, knowledge of the proximate mechanisms underpinning exploration behavior may inform conservation breeding programs (CBPs) for threatened species. However, the environmental factors that influence exploration behavior in captivity and during the reintroduction process remain poorly understood. Dietary micronutrients, such as carotenoids, are known to affect the expression of energetically costly behavioral traits, and theoretically may also influence the degree of exploration behavior in various contexts. Here, we investigate whether dietary β-carotene supplementation in captivity influences exploration behavior upon reintroduction to the wild in the critically endangered southern corroboree frog,Pseudophryne corroboree.We conducted a manipulative dietary experiment where captive bredP. corroboreewere supplemented with different doses of β-carotene for 40 weeks prior to release. Frogs (n = 115) were reintroduced to the wild using a soft-release approach, where they were released into field enclosures specifically designed for this species. Upon reintroduction, the frogs’ initial exploration behavior was measured using a standardized behavioral assay. There was no effect of diet treatment on any measure of exploration behavior (mean latency to leave the initial refuge, time spent mobile within the release apparatus and latency to disperse into the field enclosure). However, there was a significant relationship between individual body size and latency to leave the refuge, whereby smaller individuals left the refuge more rapidly. While these findings provide no evidence that β-carotene at the dosages tested influencesP. corroboreeexploration behavior in a reintroduction context, the effect of body size draws attention to the potential for bodily state to influence exploration behavior. We discuss the need for ongoing research investigating the influence of captive diet on post release behavior, and highlight how knowledge concerning state-dependent behavior might help to inform and direct reintroduction programs.

Sperm collection and storage for the sustainable management of amphibian biodiversity

More than 300 of the ~6180 known reptile species are critically endangered or endangered, with more than 200 known amphibian species extinct, and ~1230 of the ~6800 known amphibian species are critically endangered or endangered. To assure the survival of these species conservation breeding programs (CBPs) are being established. The perpetuation of genetic variation is required in both CBPs and in natural populations, to maintain health and reproduction, and to enable adaptation to environmental change. However, over time genetic variation is often lost in CBPs and in small or fragmented natural populations. Reproduction technologies including gene banking through the use of sperm cryopreservation can perpetuate genetic variation. These technologies are being applied to amphibian conservation, however, their development and use for reptiles has received only sporadic attention. We review the use of reproduction technologies for the conservation of amphibians and reptiles including the hormonal induction of sperm and oocytes, their use in artificial fertilisation, and the potentials of sperm cryopreservation for gene banking. Support for the use of reproduction technologies, and the perpetuation of genetic variation of threatened amphibians and reptiles, will benefit from practical examples of the recovery of genetic variation from stored sperm, and its use to provide competent individuals for rehabitation programs and to supplement populations.

Captive Breeding and Reintroduction

Captive Breeding and Reintroduction

ABSTRACTThe Indian pangolin is an endangered mammal in Nepal, with minimal research on its distribution, population, and habitat, especially compared to the Chinese pangolin. This study aimed to document the presence of Indian pangolin in Lamjung District, Nepal, and public perceptions toward the species. A preliminary field visit identified potential sites in Rainas municipality. Three transects were established and one active and two inactive burrows of Indian pangolin were found. They occurred at an elevation of 530 m in areas with moderate crown and ground cover (26%–50%), a 25° slope, and predominantly red soil, which indicate habitat that is well‐suited for the Indian pangolin. Past rescue operations and confirmed sightings by villagers with a keen interest in species conservation further supports the presence of Indian pangolin in the area. These findings underscore the need for further studies, strategic planning, and conservation measures for the long‐term survival of this endangered species.

In the face of ecosystem change and biodiversity loss caused by climate change and other stressors, conservation breeding, or captive breeding, with the aim of reintroduction for wild population recovery, is an emerging tool for preventing species' extinction and rehabilitating ecosystems. Most of these programs breed terrestrial megafauna, and few breed marine invertebrates. Marine invertebrates play diverse and pivotal roles in maintaining ecological integrity, and their conservation is vital for preserving healthy, functioning marine ecosystems. For sessile or mostly-sessile marine invertebrates, the likelihood of reproductive success scales with nearby population density. When population density declines, marine protected areas may be slow or ineffective in supporting recovery without human-assisted reproduction. However, most marine invertebrate breeding programs lack clear metrics that align with established conservation standards, and few have been directly linked to successful species recovery. Breeding these animals presents unique challenges related to their diverse life histories, demographics, and physiologies. At the same time, marine invertebrate programs offer both opportunities that are distinct from those of terrestrial programs and opportunities that are shared across all conservation breeding programs, regardless of the taxon. To advance the development of marine invertebrate conservation breeding and reintroduction metrics, this review assesses the challenges and opportunities for these programs across 10 focal areas, shedding light on needs and unresolved issues. We emphasize the current and potential future role of zoos and aquariums. As environmental change accelerates, conservation breeding will become increasingly vital to protecting biodiversity. Meeting this challenge requires strong, collaborative, and interdisciplinary programs that address the wide range of factors essential to the successful reintroduction and regeneration of marine ecosystems.

A global problem requires a global multifaceted solution

Useful software (Table 1) and methods (Table 2) for the integration of molecular information into conservation breeding programmes. For additional guidance on the use of molecular markers in conservation breeding programmes and conservation in general, see www.ConGRESSgenetics.eu

Conservation breeding programs support biodiversity by supplementing wild populations with captive-bred individuals to bolster population size and genetic diversity. Successful reproduction and long-term viability of offspring, which may depend on early-life traits such as egg size and fertility, are fundamental components of conservation breeding programs but are rarely systematically assessed. We analyzed data from 499 Gymnogyps californianus (California Condor) eggs laid at The World Center for Birds of Prey in Boise, Idaho, USA in 1995–2024 to test the effects of individual-specific traits (age, rearing, inbreeding coefficient, seasonal laying order, and prior-year double laying), pair-specific traits (relatedness and length of pairing), and year effects on fertility and egg weight (a proxy for egg size). Bayesian mixed models suggested that egg weight varied strongly among but not within individual females. Egg weight decreased with seasonal laying order, was independent of prior-year reproductive output, and peaked when females were middle-aged (∼10–25 years). Egg fertility was high (78%) and showed a similar female age quadratic effect. Egg weight had a positive effect on fertility. We found no effect of any other variables on egg weight or fertility. Our findings highlight senescence and individual variation as factors shaping early-life traits in a captive-bred species. Individuals breeding in captivity have access to unlimited resources, suggesting that variation in egg size is more likely driven by intrinsic female traits than by environmental factors. The genetic and developmental traits that we tested did not mediate this effect on egg size, pointing to other female characteristics as drivers. Optimizing such traits through individualized management could become a valuable tool in conservation breeding and have lasting effects on reproductive success. This study provides a foundation for more systematic, evidence-based decision-making to inform management practices across conservation breeding programs.