Abstract
Animals that deliver a toxic secretion through a wound or to the body surface without a wound are considered venomous and toxungenous, respectively. Hematophagous insects, such as mosquitoes (Aedes spp.), meet the criteria for venomous, and some endoparasitic insects, such as warble flies (Hypoderma tarandi), satisfy the definition for toxungenous. The impacts of these insects on their hosts are wide ranging. In the Arctic, their primary host is the most abundant ungulate, the caribou (Rangifer tarandus). The most conspicuous impacts of these insects on caribou are behavioral. Caribou increase their movements during peak insect harassment, evading and running away from these parasites. These behavioral responses scale up to physiological effects as caribou move to less productive habitats to reduce harassment which increases energetic costs due to locomotion, reduces nutrient intake due to less time spent foraging, and can lead to poorer physiological condition. Reduced physiological condition can lead to lower reproductive output and even higher mortality rates, with the potential to ultimately affect caribou demographics. Caribou affect all trophic levels in the Arctic and the processes that connect them, thus altering caribou demographics could impact the ecology of the region. Broadening the definitions of venomous and toxungenous animals to include hematophagous and endoparasitic insects should not only generate productive collaborations among toxinologists and parasitologists, but will also lead to a deeper understanding of the ecology of toxic secretions and their widespread influence.
Highlights
Animals that produce a secretion used on another animal that disrupts physiological or biochemical processes in order to facilitate behaviors such as feeding or defense can be considered venomous if delivered through a wound, or toxungenous if delivered to the body surface absent a wound [2,3].While sometimes overlooked in this regard, hematophagous insects such as the mosquito (Aedes spp.) and endoparasitic insects such as the warble fly (Hypoderma tarandi) have the requisite characteristics to be broadly characterized as venomous and toxungenous, respectively
Caribou affect all trophic levels in the Arctic and the processes that connect them, altering caribou demographics could impact the ecology of the region
By utilizing broad definitions of venomous and toxungenous that encompass hematophagous and endoparasitic insects, like mosquitoes and warble flies, biologists increase their ability to more fully understand the ecology of toxic secretions and their wide-ranging influence
Summary
Animals that produce a secretion used on another animal that disrupts physiological or biochemical processes in order to facilitate behaviors such as feeding or defense can be considered venomous if delivered through a wound, or toxungenous if delivered to the body surface absent a wound [2,3]. From emergence (late May to mid-June) to cessation of activity (late July), adult females seek blood meals, which will allow them to reproduce. During this time period, mosquito numbers are remarkable, with an estimated 17 trillion individuals in Alaska alone [11,12]. Adult warble flies do not directly seek nutrients from its host. Rather, adults lay their eggs on the hair of caribou in July and August [19,20]. The mature larvae exit the host in May to June and mature some weeks later to emerge as adult flies [21]
Sign-in/Register to view highlights & summary Sign-in/Register to access full text options 
Talk to us
Join us for a 30 min session where you can share your feedback and ask us any queries you have
Schedule a callDisclaimer: All third-party content on this website/platform is and will remain the property of their respective owners and is provided on "as is" basis without any warranties, express or implied. Use of third-party content does not indicate any affiliation, sponsorship with or endorsement by them. Any references to third-party content is to identify the corresponding services and shall be considered fair use under The CopyrightLaw.
