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Abstract
Globally, incidence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection is once again the highest of the bacterial sexually transmitted infections. The bacterium can produce serious complications in those infected, and emerging resistance to third generation cephalosporins could usher in an era of potentially untreatable gonorrhea. This research aimed to identify risk factors for antibiotic resistant gonorrhea infection among clients at a Shanghai sexually transmitted infection clinic over two time periods, 2004–2005 and 2008–2011. Demographic and risk factor behavior data, and biological samples for antimicrobial resistance analysis, were collected. Statistical models were built to identify risk factors associated with probable resistance to ceftriaxone and resistance to penicillin and tetracycline. High levels of ciprofloxacin resistance (98%) in our sample precluded examining its risk factors; all isolates were susceptible to spectinomycin. Overall (P<0.001), chromosomal (P<0.001), and plasmid-mediated (P = 0.01) penicillin resistance decreased from the first to second period of the study. For tetracycline, chromosomal resistance decreased (P = 0.01) and plasmid-mediated resistance increased (P<0.001) between the first and second periods of study. In multi-level multivariable regression models, male gender (P = 0.03) and older age (P = 0.01) were associated with increased minimum inhibitory concentrations to ceftriaxone. Male gender (P = 0.03) and alcohol use (P = 0.02) were associated with increased odds of overall tetracycline resistance. Male gender was associated with increased odds of chromosomally-mediated tetracycline resistance (P = 0.04), and alcohol use was associated with increased odds of plasmid-mediated tetracycline resistance (P = 0.02). Additionally, individuals in middle-salary categories were found to have lower odds of plasmid-mediated resistance to tetracycline compared with those in the lowest salary category (P≤0.02). This study is one of the first to use multilevel analysis to consider the association between risk factors for gonorrhea infections and mechanisms of resistance to individual antibiotics. Such information is urgently needed to combat the growing threat of untreatable gonorrhea.
Highlights
Infections caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae have afflicted human beings for centuries
We examined the influence of demographic factors as well as previous sexually transmitted infection (STI), use of over the counter antibiotics, and risky sexual practices on the probability of gonorrhea infection with reduced susceptibility or probable resistance to ceftriaxone, or resistance to penicillin or tetracycline
This study complements and extends previous work aimed at understanding predictors for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in clients with gonorrhea infections [28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35]
Summary
Infections caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae have afflicted human beings for centuries. The organism causes localized infections of the throat, rectum, or urogenital tract and has the potential for serious complications including pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy in women as well as infertility in both sexes [1]. Transmission to newborns can lead to serious complications including blindness. Infection with gonorrhea facilitates HIV transmission [2]. Once again, the most commonly transmitted bacterial sexually transmitted infection (STI) globally [3]; it is estimated that 106.1 million cases occur annually around the world [3]. Because gonorrhea infection is often asymptomatic, the true burden of disease is likely much higher
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