Bear Imagery and Ritual in Northeast North America: An Update and Assessment of A. Irving Hallowell's Work

Abstract

AbstractOver seventy years ago, A. Irving Hallowell called attention to the widespread distribution of bear ceremonialism among boreal cultures of northern Eurasia and North America. He showed that reverence for the bear was governed primarily by sociopsychological factors of possible great antiquity. This study draws on Hallowell's insights and uses a holistic approach to interpret bear imagery and ritual found in archaeological contexts for northeastern North America. Various data demonstrate the antiquity and variability of bear ceremonialism including the communal feasting of bear brains, ritual use of skull masks, public display of skulls in elevated positions, various expressions of symbolism in art, ritual disposal of post-cranial remains, and widespread distribution of bear clans with their associated rituals and leadership roles. Cross-culturally, the bear may signify a dangerous predatory animal opposed to humans while simultaneously looking and behaving like a person, thus representing a source...