Abstract
The objective of this research was to conduct in situ measurements of electrical conductivity (EC), pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and temperature, and collect water samples simultaneously at different depths using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The UAV system consists of a hexacopter, water sampling cartridges (WSC), and a sensor node. Payload capacity and endurance of the UAV were determined using an indoor test station. The UAV was able to produce 106 N of thrust for 10 min with 6.3 kg of total takeoff weight. The thrust-to-weight ratio of the UAV was 2.5 at 50% throttle. The decision for activating the water sampling cartridges and sensor node was made autonomously from an onboard microcontroller. System functions were verified at 0.5 m and 3.0 m depths in 6 locations over a 1.1 ha agricultural pond. Average measurements of EC, pH, DO, and temperature at 0.5 m depth were 42 µS/cm, 5.6, 8.2 mg/L, and 31 °C, while the measurements at 3 m depth were 80 µS/cm, 5.3, 5.34 mg/L, and 24 °C, respectively. The UAV-assisted autonomous water sampling system (UASS) successfully activated the WSC at each sampling location. The UASS would reduce the duration of water quality assessment and help practitioners and researchers to conduct observations with lower operational costs. The developed system would be useful for sampling and monitoring of water reservoirs, lakes, rivers, and ponds periodically or after natural disasters.
Highlights
Effective water quality monitoring is critical for water resource programs due to increased human population growth and industry pressure that can degrade water quality in coastal and inland waters [1,2]
Results and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) flight characteristics of endurance and thrust were evaluated to confirm the capability of carrying the payload for a given time to accomplish an autonomous water sampling and measurement mission
Lab test results confirmed the UAV was capable of necessary experimental payload
Summary
Effective water quality monitoring is critical for water resource programs due to increased human population growth and industry pressure that can degrade water quality in coastal and inland waters [1,2]. Increased risks of water degradation and human interaction with inland waters such as capture fisheries and other activities bring additional need for periodic water sampling methods to ensure public health [3,4,5]. Water quality detection in waterbodies can be performed by monitoring contaminant and noncontaminant indicators. Contaminant indicators reflect the status of water pollution while noncontaminant indicators reflect the comprehensive conditions of water quality [6]. Some contaminant indicators can be measured in situ, but the most accurate results are obtained with laboratory analyses [8,9]. Bacterial analyses require laboratory evaluation of samples, and the number of grab
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