Abstract
The drastic price reduction in variable renewable energy, such as wind and solar, coupled with the ease of use of smart technologies at the consumer level, is driving dramatic changes to the power system that will significantly transform how power is made, delivered, and used. Distributed energy resources (DERs)-which can include solar photovoltaic (PV), fuel cells, microturbines, gensets, distributed energy storage (e.g., batteries and ice storage), and new loads [e.g., electric vehicles (EVs), LED lighting, smart appliances, and electric heat pumps]-are being added to electric grids and causing bidirectional power flows and voltage fluctuations that can impact optimal control and system operation. Residential solar installations are expected to increase approximately 8% annually through 2050. Customer battery systems are anticipated to reach almost 1.9 GW by 2024, and current forecasts project that approximately 18.7 million EVs will be on U.S. roads in 2030. With numbers like these, it is not unreasonable to imagine a residential electricity customer having at least five controllable DERs. In future
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