Abstract
There are numerous potential applications for validated passive sampling techniques to measure persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the atmosphere, but such techniques are still in their infancy. Potential uses include: monitoring to check for regulatory compliance and identification of potential sources; cheap/efficient reconnaissance surveying of the spatial distribution of POPs; and deployment in studies to investigate environmental processes affecting POP cycling. This article reviews and discusses the principles and needs of passive sampling methodologies. The timescales required for analytical purposes and for the scientific objectives of the study are critical in the choice and design of a passive sampler. Some techniques may operate over the timescales of hours/days, others over weeks/months/years. We distinguish between approaches based on "kinetic uptake" and "equilibrium partitioning". We highlight potentially useful techniques and discuss their potential advantages, disadvantages, and research requirements, drawing attention to the urgent need for detailed studies of sampler performance and calibration.
Highlights
There is a need to identify and quantify organic micropollutants in the atmosphere
The major drawbacks with active sampling are that the equipment is generally expensive, skilled/trained operators are required to be on hand to run the equipment, and an electrical supply is needed to run the pump system
Much work has been carried out on these samplers, with uptake and sampling rates being obtained for a suite of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), PCDD/Fs, and Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)[28,32]
Summary
There is a need to identify and quantify organic micropollutants in the atmosphere. Many compounds in air can transfer to humans and wildlife and have been linked to adverse health effects, even at low concentrations[1]. Many compound classes with a chain, branched chain, ring, or multiring backbone fall under this broad classification (Table 1) Their physical and chemical properties result in their resistance to photolytic, biological, or chemical degradation. POPs can either be produced intentionally (e.g., organochlorine [OC] pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs]) or accidentally as byproducts of, for example, chemical manufacture or incineration processes (e.g., polychlorinated dibenzo[p]-dioxins and furans [PCDD/Fs] and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs]). POPs can partition between the vapour and particulate phases of the atmosphere This distribution will depend on the compound’s physical-chemical properties, the temperature, and the amount and nature of particulate matter (see Fig. 1). Volatile species, such as the OC pesticide hexachlorobenzene, will be principally gaseous under most ambient temperatures worldwide. Less volatile species, such as octachlorinated dioxin, will be primarily particle associated, even in warm tropical locations
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