Abstract
AimsTo estimate associations between smoking initiation, smoking persistence and smoking heaviness and caffeine consumption in two population‐based samples from the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.DesignObservational study employing data on self‐reported smoking behaviour and caffeine consumption.SettingAdults from the general population in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.ParticipantsParticipants from the Netherlands Twin Register [NTR: n = 21 939, mean age 40.8, standard deviation (SD) = 16.9, 62.6% female] and the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC: n = 9086, mean age 33.2, SD = 4.7, 100% female).MeasurementsSmoking initiation (ever versus never smoking), smoking persistence (current versus former smoking), smoking heaviness (number of cigarettes smoked) and caffeine consumption in mg per day through coffee, tea, cola and energy drinks.FindingsAfter correction for age, gender (NTR), education and social class (ALSPAC), smoking initiation was associated with consuming on average 52.8 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 45.6–60.0; NTR] and 59.5 (95% CI = 51.8–67.2; ALSPAC) mg more caffeine per day. Smoking persistence was also associated with consuming more caffeine [+57.9 (95% CI = 45.2–70.5) and +83.2 (95% CI = 70.2–96.3) mg, respectively]. Each additional cigarette smoked per day was associated with 3.7 (95% CI = 1.9–5.5; NTR) and 8.4 (95% CI = 6.9–10.0; ALSPAC) mg higher daily caffeine consumption in current smokers. Smoking was associated positively with coffee consumption and less strongly with cola and energy drinks. For tea, associations were positive in ALSPAC and negative in NTR.ConclusionsThere appears to be a positive association between smoking and caffeine consumption in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.
Highlights
Cigarette smoking is associated with higher consumption of coffee [1]
All analyses described here were performed for total caffeine use, individual caffeinated drinks and decaffeinated coffee, both unadjusted and adjusted for age, educational attainment [Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) in five categories: secondary education (CSE), vocational, O level, A level and Degree; Netherlands Twin Register (NTR) in seven categories: primary school only, lower vocational schooling, lower secondary schooling, intermediate vocational schooling, intermediate/higher secondary schooling, higher vocational schooling and university], social class [only in ALSPAC in six categories: class I, class II, class II, class III, class IV and class V] and gender
There were more current smokers in the British sample (22.9%) compared with the Dutch sample (14.9% for women and 17.6% for men), and the number of cigarettes smoked per day was higher in the British women compared with the Dutch smokers (10.6 in women and 11.4 in men)
Summary
Cigarette smoking is associated with higher consumption of coffee [1]. In a sample of individuals from the United States who never drank coffee, 4.8% of males and 8.1% of females were smokers, compared with 34.7% and 48.1%, respectively, in those who drank six or more cups of coffee per day [2]. While tea is the dominant drink in the United Kingdom [7], the Dutch are reportedly among the world’s heaviest coffee drinkers [8] Such cultural differences may have an influence on the association between smoking behaviour and caffeine consumption, but so far this has not been investigated. Associations between self-reported smoking behaviour and caffeine consumption are investigated in the Netherlands Twin Register (NTR) (n = 21 939, the Netherlands) and the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) (n = 9086, United Kingdom) Data from these two samples are analysed separately, so that any cultural differences in the association between smoking and caffeine can be distinguished. There were two main research questions: (1) is the association between smoking and caffeine consumption consistent across different types of caffeinated drinks or is it specific to coffee; and (2) is the association between smoking and caffeine consumption consistent across two European countries with different patterns of caffeine consumption?
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