Abstract
BackgroundWhether fetal neurodevelopment is disrupted by traffic-related air pollution is uncertain. Animal studies suggest that chemical and non-chemical stressors interact to impact neurodevelopment, and that this association is further modified by sex.ObjectivesTo examine associations between prenatal traffic-related black carbon exposure, prenatal stress, and sex with children’s memory and learning.MethodsAnalyses included N = 258 mother-child dyads enrolled in a Boston, Massachusetts pregnancy cohort. Black carbon exposure was estimated using a validated spatiotemporal land-use regression model. Prenatal stress was measured using the Crisis in Family Systems-Revised survey of negative life events. The Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning (WRAML2) was administered at age 6 years; outcomes included the General Memory Index and its component indices [Verbal, Visual, and Attention Concentration]. Relationships between black carbon and WRAML2 index scores were examined using multivariable-adjusted linear regression including effect modification by stress and sex.ResultsMothers were primarily minorities (60% Hispanic, 26% Black); 67% had ≤12 years of education. The main effect for black carbon was not significant for any WRAML2 index; however, in stratified analyses, among boys with high exposure to prenatal stress, Attention Concentration Index scores were on average 9.5 points lower for those with high compared to low prenatal black carbon exposure (P 3-way interaction = 0.04).ConclusionThe associations between prenatal exposure to black carbon and stress with children’s memory scores were stronger in boys than in girls. Studies assessing complex interactions may more fully characterize health risks and, in particular, identify vulnerable subgroups.
Highlights
The main effect for black carbon was not significant for any WRAML2 index; in stratified analyses, among boys with high exposure to prenatal stress, Attention Concentration Index scores were on average 9.5 points lower for those with high compared to low prenatal black carbon exposure (P3-way interaction = 0.04)
Black carbon (BC) is classified as near ultrafine and fine particulate matter composed of an elemental carbon core with adsorbed organic and inorganic chemical species [1]
We considered a number of standard control variables and potential confounders previously identified as being related to air pollution or stress exposure and cognitive development
Summary
Black carbon (BC) is classified as near ultrafine and fine particulate matter composed of an elemental carbon core with adsorbed organic and inorganic chemical species [1]. Substantial evidence from the human and animal literature suggests that psychosocial stress and chemical toxicants elicit sex-specific effects on the developing brain, with boys typically demonstrating greater sensitivity to early life exposures relative to girls [3, 12,13,14,15,16]. These findings highlight the importance of examining the social environment and sex-specific differences when studying neurodevelopmental endpoints and support National Institute of Health policies that mandate clinical, animal and cellular-based research report how a study’s design will account for potential sex differences [17]. Animal studies suggest that chemical and non-chemical stressors interact to impact neurodevelopment, and that this association is further modified by sex
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