Abstract
Vitamin D has been identified as a nutrient of public health concern, and higher intake of natural or fortified food sources of vitamin D, such as milk, are encouraged by the 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. We, therefore, examined the association of milk consumption and vitamin D status in the United States (US) population. Twenty-four-hour dietary recall data and serum 25(OH)D concentrations were obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001–2010 and were analyzed by linear and logistic regression after adjusting for anthropometric and demographic variables. Significance was set at p < 0.05. Approximately 57–80% children and 42–60% adults were milk consumers. Milk intake (especially reduced-fat, low fat and no-fat milk) was positively associated (p linear trend < 0.05) with serum vitamin D status and with a 31–42% higher probability of meeting recommended serum vitamin D (>50 nmol/L) levels among all age groups. Serum vitamin D status was also associated with both type and amount of milk intake depending upon the age and ethnicity. In conclusion, the results indicate that milk consumers consistently have higher serum vitamin D levels and higher probability of meeting recommended levels. Therefore, increasing milk intake may be an effective strategy to improve the vitamin D status of the US population.
Highlights
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin, photosynthesized in the skin by the action of solar ultraviolet (UV) B radiation
The United States (US) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Second National Report on Biochemical Indicators of Diet and Nutrition in the US population reported that, in 2003–2006, approximately 8% of the population aged 1 year and older were at risk for vitamin D deficiency (VDD), which varied by age, gender, or race/ethnicity, and was as high as 31% in non-Hispanic blacks [14]
Data from five separate cycles of What We Eat In America (WWEIA), the dietary intake component of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), a continuous survey conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), were used (2001–2010)
Summary
Vitamin D (calciferol) is a fat-soluble vitamin, photosynthesized in the skin by the action of solar ultraviolet (UV) B radiation. It is naturally found in only a few foods, such as fish-liver oils, fatty fishes, mushrooms, egg yolks, and liver [1]. The United States (US) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Second National Report on Biochemical Indicators of Diet and Nutrition in the US population reported that, in 2003–2006, approximately 8% of the population aged 1 year and older were at risk for vitamin D deficiency (VDD), which varied by age, gender, or race/ethnicity, and was as high as 31% in non-Hispanic blacks [14]. More recent analysis of NHANES 2011–2014 data, which oversampled Asian, non-Hispanic black, Nutrients 2020, 12, 3720; doi:10.3390/nu12123720 www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients Emerging evidence suggests that vitamin D deficiency may be linked to the development of cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, cancer, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and sarcopenia [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13].
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