Abstract
Sixty-four percent of adults in America drink coffee daily, and caffeine is the main reason people tend to drink coffee habitually. Few studies have examined the association between caffeine and all-cause and cause-specific mortality. The objective of this study was to examine the association between caffeine and all-cause and cause-specific mortality using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999–2014 database. The multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression model was used to examine 23,878 individuals 20 years and older. Daily caffeine intake was measured once at baseline. A total of 2206 deaths occurred, including 394 cardiovascular (CVD) deaths and 525 cancer deaths. Compared to those with a caffeine intake of <100 mg/day, the hazard ratios (HRs) for CVD mortality were significantly lower in the participants with a caffeine intake of 100–200 mg/day (HR, 0.63; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.45–0.88), and those with a caffeine intake of >200 mg/day (HR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.50–0.88) after adjusting for potential confounders. The HRs for all-cause mortality were significantly lower in the participants with a caffeine intake of 100–200 mg/day (HR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.67–0.91), and those with a caffeine intake of >200 mg/day (HR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.60–0.78). Subgroup analyses showed that caffeine may have different effects on all-cause mortality among different age and body mass index (BMI) groups. In conclusion, higher caffeine intake was associated with lower all-cause and CVD mortality.
Highlights
IntroductionSixty-four percent of adults in America drink coffee daily, and the average coffee intake is 3.1 cups/day [1]
Introduction published maps and institutional affilSixty-four percent of adults in America drink coffee daily, and the average coffee intake is 3.1 cups/day [1]
We examined the association between caffeine intake and allcause, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and cancer mortality during 16 years of follow-up among 23,878 participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999–2014 database
Summary
Sixty-four percent of adults in America drink coffee daily, and the average coffee intake is 3.1 cups/day [1]. People were recommended to avoid or reduce coffee, especially those with a history of cardiovascular disease (CVD), because it increases blood pressure (BP), total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and triglycerides [2]. More recent studies have reported that coffee improves insulin sensitivity, reduces chronic inflammation and liver enzymes, and may be inversely associated with all-cause and some of the cause-specific mortality rates [3,4,5]. Pooled 40 studies with 3,852,651 participants and reported that the lowest hazard ratio (HR). Was an intake of 2.5 cups of coffee per day for CVD mortality (HR, 0.83; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.80–0.87; p < 0.001), and 3.5 cups/day for all-cause mortality
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