Abstract
Inherited tectonic structures, ongoing tectonic deformation, and variations in relative rock uplift rates play an important role in conditioning the processes of relief development. Their influence among other factors, such as climate and lithology, can be quantified using landscape analysis, and geomorphometric indices, in particular. The usage of landscape analysis in recent years is increasing systematically due to the constant improvement of the digital elevation models and GIS software that significantly facilitate this approach. In this study, we aim to recognize the influence of tectonic structures and processes on relief development in the low mountains with moderate relief of the Soła River catchment in the Western Outer Carpathians. To this end, we calculated geomorphometric indices (river longitudinal profile, stream-length gradient index, minimum bulk erosion, relief ratio, circulatory ratio, elongation ratio, and hypsometric integral) for the Sola River and its 47 sub-catchments using a 25-m spatial resolution Digital Terrain Elevation Data Level 2. Additionally, we identified lineaments and knickpoints and correlated the computed results with local and regional fault networks, variations in lithology, and climate fluctuations. Obtained results indicate a significant impact of inherited tectonic structures on the relief development of the Soła River catchment, i.e., directions of principal ridges and valleys follow the orientation of main folds and faults recorded in this area. Anomalously high values of minimum bulk erosion, river gradient, and stream-length gradient index allowed us to define two areas with higher relative uplift rates: 1) the Sola Gorge and 2) the Beskid Żywiecki Mts. Polish Outer Carpathians are generally considered as an area of low strain rate and low seismic activity. However, the possibility of neotectonic processes should be considered in geohazard estimations. Observed bends in the direction of river valleys that do not correspond with changes in lithology could be related to active strike-slip faults. These are probably the reactivated basement structures, copied in the thin-skinned nappe cover, as a result of the accommodation of the Mur-Žilina Fault Zone resulting from the tectonic push of the Alcapa (Alpine-Carpathian-Pannonian) microplate against the European plate. Thus, the role of recent tectonic activity in relief development of the Sola River catchment even though appears to be subsidiary at the most, should not be excluded.
Highlights
IntroductionWorldwide examples proved the usage of landscape analysis and geomorphometric indices, in particular, to quantify the tectonic deformation and derive variations in relative rock uplift across high strain rate areas, such as the western USA, Taiwan, Himalaya, Andes, forearc of subduction zones, etc. (e.g., Burbank and Anderson 2001; Kirby and Whipple 2001, 2012; Keller and Pinter 2002;Gao et al 2013; Gaidzik and RamírezHerrera 2017; Ramírez-Herrera et al 2018; Wang et al 2019; García-Delgado and Velandia 2020), and in low strain rate areas like SE Spain (e.g., Pérez-Peña et al, 2010), the Vienna Basin and central Pannonian Basin (e.g., Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al 2009; Matoš et al 2013), Sudetes Mts. (e.g., Różycka and Migoń 2017)
Received: 04-Apr-2020 Revised: 04-Jun-2020 Accepted: 31-July-2020 structures on the relief development of the Soła River catchment, i.e., directions of principal ridges and valleys follow the orientation of main folds and faults recorded in this area
Spatial variations in relative rock uplift rates within the Soła catchment constrained by our landscape analysis result from the current stress field within the nappes of the Outer Carpathians and the autochthonous basement produced by the tectonic push of the Alcapa (Alpine-CarpathianPannonian) microplate exerted on the topof the underthrust European plate (Jarosiński 1998)
Summary
Worldwide examples proved the usage of landscape analysis and geomorphometric indices, in particular, to quantify the tectonic deformation and derive variations in relative rock uplift across high strain rate areas, such as the western USA, Taiwan, Himalaya, Andes, forearc of subduction zones, etc. (e.g., Burbank and Anderson 2001; Kirby and Whipple 2001, 2012; Keller and Pinter 2002;Gao et al 2013; Gaidzik and RamírezHerrera 2017; Ramírez-Herrera et al 2018; Wang et al 2019; García-Delgado and Velandia 2020), and in low strain rate areas like SE Spain (e.g., Pérez-Peña et al, 2010), the Vienna Basin and central Pannonian Basin (e.g., Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al 2009; Matoš et al 2013), Sudetes Mts. (e.g., Różycka and Migoń 2017). Worldwide examples proved the usage of landscape analysis and geomorphometric indices, in particular, to quantify the tectonic deformation and derive variations in relative rock uplift across high strain rate areas, such as the western USA, Taiwan, Himalaya, Andes, forearc of subduction zones, etc. Extensive and uncomplicated access to digital elevation models and GIS software essentially sustained the worldwide usage of numerous geomorphometric indices to discuss the response of landscapes to ongoing deformation (Keller and Pinter 2002; Font et al 2010; Kirby and Whipple 2012). Observed anomalies in values of these indices result from tectonic activity, climate conditions, and variations in rock erodibility or changes in base-level (e.g., Burbank and Anderson 2001; Keller and Pinter 2002; Argyriou et al 2017; Buczek and Górnik 2020). The above-mentioned studies focused usually on the possible activity of neotectonic structures itself and not on the response of the landscape to ongoing deformation
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