Abstract
During the period of Japanese occupation (1910–1945) and the Korean War (1950–1953), extensive areas of forest were severely degraded by over-harvesting and fire in Korea. In addition, intensive use of the forest-resources to obtain fuel, organic compost, livestock feed, and so on contributed to forest degradation. As a result, the South Korean government launched large-scale tree planting projects to reforest the denuded mountains particularly in the 1960s. This study aims to evaluate the restoration effects of the pitch pine (Pinus rigida Mill.) plantations and further diagnose the invasive potential of the pitch pine. To arrive at the goals, we investigated the changes of vegetation and soil characteristics in different chronosequences in the pitch pine plantations and in native forests, which were selected as reference stands. Pitch pine plantations were usually planted on mountainous land, which is characterized by an elevation of below 300 m above sea level and a gentle slope below 20°. The species composition of the pitch pine forestations was different depending on the study site but tended to resemble that of the reference stands in the years after forestation. The species diversity showed an increasing trend in response to stand age. The frequency distribution of diameter classes of dominant tree species showed a trend for pitch pine plantations to succeed to native oak stands. A change in canopy profiles depending on stand age also proved the successional trend. The establishment and development of pitch pine plantations for reforestation contributed to erosion control and improved the physic-chemical properties of the soil and thus prepared a basis for the recovery of native vegetation. Such changes in vegetation and soil confirmed that the pitch pine plantations successfully achieved the restoration goals. On the other hand, mature pitch pine stands reproduced young pitch pine stands by self-seeding on the slopes of various sorts of roads including expressways. This shows that pitch pine is successfully established in Korea and thereby the species has been naturalized. However, the natural succession of pitch pine stands in Korea suggests that it is possible to introduce some exotic species for reforestation without resulting in uncontrolled invasion.
Highlights
Most plantations have a pulp, fuelwood or timber production function but they can be established for soil and water conservation, for the restoration of abandoned pastures, to provide shade for crops, for carbon sequestration or for a combination of multiple objectives such as timber production or carbon mitigation, and poverty reduction [1]
We investigated the vegetation and soil characteristics of pitch pine plantations in different successional stages and natural forests selected as reference stands
The objectives of the current study were to: (1) evaluate the restoration effects of pitch pine afforestation based on changes in vegetation and soil properties in the pitch pine plantations with different ages and a comparison of the results to those of the reference oak forests; (2) diagnose the invasive potential of pitch pine based on the expansion and decline of the plant depending on the habitat condition
Summary
Most plantations have a pulp, fuelwood or timber production function but they can be established for soil and water conservation, for the restoration of abandoned pastures, to provide shade for crops, for carbon sequestration or for a combination of multiple objectives such as timber production or carbon mitigation, and poverty reduction [1]. Plantations can function as habitat for a wide range of forest organisms [2,3,4,5]. In Korea, the intention seems largely to correspond to the latter, as most forestation projects have applied for erosion protection. In this respect, the goals of forestation include the concept of nature restoration or preventing further damage. The goals of forestation include the concept of nature restoration or preventing further damage This concept corresponds with the objectives that the restoration project pursues today, such as sustaining the natural balance and improving environmental conditions through the function of the restored ecosystem [8,9]
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